1 분(分) 동안 테니스 공을 밟아 줄 경우 각저의 임파순환(淋巴循環)을 돕는다.

1 분(分) 동안 테니스 공을 밟아 줄 경우 각저의 임파순환(淋巴循環)을 돕는다. 테니스 공의 탄성(彈性)은 각저근막(脚底筋膜)을 자극시켜 주므로 임파순환(淋巴循環)을 도와준다. 일본(日本) NESTA 의 신전체조(伸展體操) 부분(部門)의 담임(擔任) 무전민희(武田敏希) 교련(教練)은 테니스 공의 외연내강(外軟內硬)한 탄성(彈性)은 족저근막(足底筋膜)을 이완시켜 주는데 가장 적합(適合)하다고 말했으며 각저(腳底)의 임파회류(淋巴回流)를 자극시켜 줌과 동시에 근육을 조정(調整)해 주고 족저근막(足底筋膜)의 탄성(彈性)을 증강시켜 주므로 인하여 하반신 혈액순환(血液循環)을 촉진시켜 준다고 말했다. 각저(腳底) 안마시 통증이 발생할 경우 신진대사폐물(新陳代謝廢物)이 과다(過多)하게 퇴적되어 있기 때문이다. 운동과학(運動科學) 전문가(專問家) 코즈 나오아키(木津直昭木津 : こづ なおあき)는 각저안마(腳底按摩)의 이론(理論) 중 「반사구(反射區)」관념(觀念)에 관하여 설명한다. 각저안마시 동통(疼痛)이 발생함은 족저근막이 과도(過度)하게 긴장(緊張)되어 있음은 물론 신체(身體) 내의 유산(乳酸)과 수분(水分) 등 대사물(代謝物)이 이곳 동통처에 퇴적(堆積)되어 있기 때문이다. 그러므로 이곳에 자극을 줄 경우 퇴적물(堆積物)이 그 부위의 신경(神經)을 압박하므로 동통감이 발생한다. 무전민희(武田敏希)는 테니스 공을 발로 밟을 경우 각저(腳底)에 극렬(劇烈)한 동통감(疼痛感)이 발생하는 사람들은 평상시 대량의 신진대사폐물이 각저(腳底)에 누적(累積)되어 있다. 이와같은 사람들은 각저근육(腳底筋肉)을 이완시켜 주기 위하여 특별히 강(強)한 안마를 해 주어야 한다. 수면 전에 족저를 안마 해 줄 경우 하반신(下半身)의 혈액회류(血液回流)와 하반신의 임파액(淋巴液)의 회류(回流)를 도와준다. ※ 테니스 공 각저안마(腳底按摩) 전(前)에 먼저 열수포각하고 나서 끓인 물을 한 컵마신다. 그러면 신체(身體)의 임파순환(淋巴循環)이 가속(加速)되어 소수종(消水腫) 효과가 나타난다. 발꿈치 부터 발가락 끝 까지 테니스 공을 1 분 동안 세게 골고루 밟아준다. 긴장되어 있던 족저근이 이완된다. ※ 주의(注意)： 각저안마 중 특별히 동통(疼痛)이 더욱 심한 부위(部位)를 발견할 경우 이곳에 더욱 힘을 가하여 테니스공을 세게 밟아준다.

일본(日本)의 가내(家內) 전통 지해비방(止咳秘方)： 양총탕(洋蔥湯)은 살균해독(殺菌解毒) 작용이있다.

일본(日本)의 가내(家內) 전통 지해비방(止咳秘方)： 양총탕(洋蔥湯)은 살균해독(殺菌解毒) 작용이있다. 감기에 걸려 콧물이 흐르고 해수(咳嗽)가 그치지 않을 경우 서양약 만 복용하면 서양약(西洋藥)의 항약성(抗藥性)을 증가시켜 줌과 동시에 신체가 상한다. 그러므로 물을 다량 마셔주고 비타민을 섭취해 주며 충분한 수면을 취하여 주고 일본(日本)의 전통(傳統) 가전(家傳) 감기치료 처방(處方)을 사용하여 감기를 치료해 보는 것도 좋다. 양총탕(洋蔥湯)（1 인분）: 재료(材料)：물 300cc、달걀 1 개(個)、양파 반(半) 개、생강 적당(適量)、마늘 2 편(片)、간장, 꿀 적당. STEP 1：양파와 마늘과 생강(生薑)을 모두 잘게 썬다. STEP 2： 먼저 냄비 속에 양파를 집어넣고 물을 부어 끓인다. STEP 3：마늘과 생강과 간장을 넣고 다시 한 번 더 끓인 후 STEP 4：꿀을 가미하여 따뜻할 때 음용한다. 양파 속에 함유되어 있는 플라보노이드의 일종인 「퀘르세틴 ( Quercetin)은 면역공능(免疫功能)을 조정(調整)해 주므로 감기를 치료해 주며 위(胃)의 기능을 개선(改善)시켜 주고 강혈당(降血糖)과 강혈지(降血脂)의 공효(功效)가 있다. 일본(日本)의 저명한 요리연구가(料理研究家) 무라우에 사가코(村上祥子 : むらうえ さがこ)는 “ 마늘 속에 함유되어 있는 「알리신（Allicin)」성분(成分)은 면역능력(免疫能力)을 증강(增強)시켜 주고 인체(人體)의 자유기능(自癒機)을 증가시켜 주므로 양파와 배합(配合)할 경우 더욱 유효(有效)하다. 생강은 수각빙냉(手腳冰冷)을 개선시켜 주며 해독살균(解毒殺菌) 작용이 있고 면역력(免疫力)을 강화(強化)시켜 준다. 또 생강을 가열(加熱)할 경우에 쇼가올（Shogaol）의 함량(含量)을 증가시켜 주므로 전신(全身)을 온난(溫暖)하게 해준다. 달걀 속의 비타민 A 는 감기를 예방해 주고 눈(眼睛)을 보호해 주는 작용이 있으며，비타민 B 군(群)은 신경(神經)을 보호해 주고、신진대사(新陳代謝)를 촉진시켜 주므로 체질허약자(體質虛弱者)들에게 적합하다." 고 설명했다. 이 처방은 감기에 걸렸을 때 조성되는 식욕부진(食慾不振)도 치료해 준다.

커리와 건포도(乾葡萄)와 포도피(葡萄皮)는 대장암(大腸癌) 예방(預防) :

커리와 건포도(乾葡萄)와 포도피(葡萄皮)는 대장암(大腸癌) 예방(預防) : 대장암(大腸癌)은 10대(十大) 암증(癌症) 중 제 일위를 차지하고 있다. 대장암의 일부 원인은 음식습관(飲食習慣)의 개변(改變)과 밀접한 관계를 갖고있다. 암증(癌症)을 예방하기 위하여 고유지(高油脂)와 홍육(紅肉)과 기름에 튀긴 음식 등을 삼가 섭취해야 한다. 일본(日本) 소화계통(消化系統) 전문 의사(醫師) 고다 쇼(ごうだ しょう)의 저서 《為什麼你的病好不了》에 보면 커리와 건포도(乾葡萄)와 포도피(葡萄皮) 속에 함유되어 있는 강황소(薑黃素)와 레스베라트롤（Resveratrol）등 특수(特殊)한 영양성분(營養成分)은 암증(癌症)을 방지해 주고 대장암(大腸癌) 세포(細胞)의 증생(增生)을 억제(抑制)시켜 준다고 암증연구센터는 실증(證實)하였다. 대장암의 조기병변(早期病變)인 이상선와소(異常腺窩巢 : aberrant crypt foci of colonic mucosa, ACF)는 대장암(大腸癌)의 전암병변(前癌病変)이며 대장식육(大腸息肉) 형성(形成) 후(後)，최후(最後)로 대장암(大腸癌)으로 변성(變成)된다. 커리 속에 풍부하게 함유하고 있는 「강황소(薑黃素)」성분(成分)（커리의 황색(黃色) 성분(成分)）은 암전병변(癌前病變)을 예방해 주므로 대장암(大腸癌)의 조기(早期)病灶的 발생률(發生率)을 감소(減少)시켜 준다. 그외 포도피(葡萄皮) 속에 풍부하게 함유(含有)되어 있는 레스베라트롤（Resveratrol）성분은 암세포증생(癌細胞增生)을 억제시켜 주는 효과(效果)가 있다. 건포도와 포도피를 식용(食用)할 경우 레스베라트롤（Resveratrol）성분 때문에 항암공효(抗癌功效)가 있다. 대장암에 걸릴 확률을 강저시켜 주기 위하여 커리와 포도피(葡萄皮)와 건포도(乾葡萄)를 복용해야 한다. 【커리】: 커리 속에 함유되어 있는 「강황소(薑黃素)」는 방암효과(防癌效果)가 있다. 0.2/100 내지 2/100 제량(劑量)의 강황소(薑黃素)를 복용할 경우 이상선와소(異常腺窩巢 : aberrant crypt foci of colonic mucosa, ACF)의 형성(形成)을 강저(降低)시켜 준다. 그외 강황소(薑黃素)는 항노화(抗老化) 공효(功效)도 있으며 치매증의 발생을 예방(預防)해 준다. 【포도피(葡萄皮)와 건포도(乾葡萄)】: 포도피(葡萄皮) 속에 함유(含有)되어 있는 진귀(珍貴)한 항산화성분(抗氧化成分) 레스베라트롤（Resveratrol）성분은 고도(高度)의 활성산소 흡수능력(吸收能力)이 있으므로 장수식품이다. 29 일 동안 연속적으로 매일(每日) 0.5g 내지 1g 의 레스베라트롤（Resveratrol)을 복용시킨 결과 대장암의 암조직증생(癌組織增生)이 현저하게 감소(減少)되었다고 과학자들에 의하여 증명되었다. 레스베라트롤（Resveratrol）은 인슐린저항을 개선(改善)시켜 줌과 동시에 간공능(肝功能)을 개선시켜 주므로 혈압(血壓)을 강저시켜 주고 콜레스테롤의 레벨을 강저시켜 준다. 또 감비(減肥) 효과(效果)도 있다.

뇌혈전(腦血栓)의 6개(個) 선조(先兆) 증상 : 제 일 먼저 혀(舌頭)를 관찰 !

뇌혈전(腦血栓)의 6개(個) 선조(先兆) 증상 : 제 일 먼저 혀(舌頭)를 관찰 ! 뇌혈전(腦血栓)의 발병률(發病率)은 점차 연경화(年輕化)와 저령화(低齡化) 추세(趨勢)이며 대부분의 사람들은 일상생활 중 뇌혈전의 위협(威脅)을 받고 있다. 뇌혈전(腦血栓)은 뇌동맥(腦動脈)의 내벽상(內膜上)에 자리잡고 있으며 혈액(血液)의 유형성분(有形成分)이 동맥의 내벽에 부착(附著)하여 형성된다. 일반적으로 50세(歲) 이후(以後)에 발생하며 여성(女性)들 보다 남성(男性)들에게 더 많이 발생된다. 뇌동맥죽상경화(腦動脈粥狀硬化)와 반괴(斑塊)는 혈류(血流)의 속도를 완만(緩慢)하게 하며、혈압(血壓)을 저하시켜 준다. 다음은 뇌혈전의 6개 전조증상이다. ： 1、혀(舌頭)의 마목(麻木) : 뇌혈전 폭발(爆發) 전(前)에 25% 의 환자들은 잠시성(暫時性) 뇌결혈(腦缺血) 발작(發作)이 발생되는데 한의학에서는「소중풍(小中風)」이라고 칭하며 발병(發病) 하루 전(前)에 잠시적으로 언어장애(言語障礙)가 출현하는데 말이 서툴고 혀가 불영활(不靈活)하다. 그러므로 혀(舌頭)에 마목(麻木) 증상이 나타날 경우 즉시 전문의사를 찾아가서 진찰을 받아야 한다. 2、돌연(突然)히 현훈(眩暈)이 발생 : 아침에 기상과 동시에 피로(疲勞)하고 현훈증상이 조성된다. 그후 1 일 내지 2 일 동안에 반복(反覆)하여 5 차례 이상(以上) 현훈(眩暈)이 출현(出現)할 경우 뇌출혈(腦出血) 또는 뇌경색(腦梗塞)의 위험성(危險性)이 증가(增加)된다. 특별히 고혈압(高血壓) 환자(患者)들은 주의(注意)를 요한다. 3、극렬(劇烈)한 두통(頭痛) : 뇌혈전은 극렬(劇烈)한 두통(頭痛)을 유발하며 엄중한 경우 추축(抽搐)과 혼미(昏迷)와 기수(嗜睡)와 두통(頭痛)이 발생한다. 4、보태(步態) 이상(異常) : 걸음걸이가 이상해 지며 산보할 때 퇴무력(腿無力)이 발생하는데 이는 편탄(偏癱)의 선조증상(先兆症狀) 중 하나이다. 노년인(老年人)들의 걸음걸이가 돌연(突然)히 변화(變化)하고 지체마목(肢體麻木)과 무력(無力) 등 증상이 출현할 경우 뇌혈전의 전조 신호(信號)이다. 5、비출혈(鼻出血) : 비출혈은 뇌혈전의 위험신호(危險信號) 중 하나이다. 뇌혈전 폭발전(爆發前) 반년간(半年間) 수차(數次) 대량(大量)의 비출혈(鼻出血)이나 안저출혈(眼底出血)이나 혈뇨(血尿) 등 증상(症狀)이 출현된다. 6、혈압(血壓) 이상(異常) : 혈압이 돌연히 200/120mmHg 이상(以上) 지속시(持續時) 뇌혈전의 전조(前兆) 증상이다. ; 또 혈압(血壓)이 돌연히 80/50mmHg 이하(以下)로 강저시 뇌혈전의 전조증상이다. 일단(一旦) 뇌경색(腦梗塞)이 발생(發生) 할 경우 치료효과(治療效果)는 만족하지 못하므로 뇌경색의 선조증상(先兆症狀)을 식별(識別)하는 것이 무엇보다 중요하다. 일단(一旦) 상술(上述)한 6 종(種) 증상(症狀)이 출현(出現)할 경우 속히 병원을 방문하여 병인(病因)을 조사하는 것이 현명하다.

심근경색(心筋梗塞)과 뇌경색(腦梗塞)의 발병률을 강저시켜 주는 2 분 체조 :

심근경색(心筋梗塞)과 뇌경색(腦梗塞)의 발병률을 강저시켜 주는 2 분 체조 : 미국 하버드대학교 연구팀은 심근경색(心筋梗塞)과 뇌경색(腦梗塞)의 발병률을 강저시켜 주는 2 분 체조를 소개했다. 근심과 걱정과 불안과 마음을 태우는 심정(心情)은 대개 스트레스로 인하여 발생하는 증상(症狀)들이다. 스트레스는 비만을 조성하고 면역력을 저하시켜 주며 심근경색(心筋梗塞)과 뇌출혈(腦出血)과 뇌경색(腦梗塞) 등 치명적(致命的)인 질병(疾病)을 유발시킨다고 과학자들에 의하여 증명되었다. 스트레스를 해소시켜 주는 방법은 많이있다. 과학적(科學的)으로 실증(實證)된 방식(方式)도 있다. 스트레스 홀몬이 분비(分泌)될 경우 인체의 면역력(免疫力)은 하강(下降) 되며 암(癌)에 걸릴 확률이 증가(增加)된다. 현대인들은 매일 아침 눈을 뜨자마자 크고 작은 도전(挑戰)에 직면하게 된다. 또 현대사회는 정보화 사회이므로 24 시간 각(各) 방면(方面)의 정보침략(情報侵略)과 정보교류(情報交流)의 스트레스 사회 속에서 생활한다. 일본(日本) 순천당대학교(順天堂大學校) 소림홍행(小林弘幸) 교수(教授)의 다년간 스트레스 연구에 의하면 공구감(恐懼感)과 불안감(不安感)이 인체내로 침습해 올 경우 대뇌(大腦) 속의 편도체(扁桃體 : Amygdala)가 직접 반응(反應)하여 스트레스 홀몬인 코르티솔을 분비(分泌)하므로 인하여 심도(心跳)變가 빨라지고 혈류량(血流量)이 감소(減少)되며 혈액(血液)은 말초혈관(末梢血管) 내로 집중된다고 한다. 편도체(扁桃體 : Amygdala)는 대뇌변연계에 존재하는 아몬드 모양의 뇌부위인데 감정을 조절하고, 공포에 대한 학습 및 기억에 중요한 역할을 한다. 일본(日本) 명치대학교(明治大學校) 법률학과(法律學科) 호리타슈고(ほりた しゅうご) 교수(教授)가 출판(出版)한 서적(書籍) 《科学的に元気になる方法集めました》（번역：원기(元氣)를 회복(恢復)시키는 과학적(科學的)인 방식(方式)의 총정리 ）에 보면 38 종(種)의 스트레스를 해소시켜 주는 다음과 같은 과학실증(科學實證) 연구(研究) 자료가 5 가지 소개(介紹)되어 있다. 1.수포온수(手泡溫水) : 매일 족욕(足浴)을 하며 동시에 수포온수(泡手溫水)를 해주면 일거양득이다. 섭씨 40도(度)의 온수(溫水) 속에 두 손을 10분(分) 동안 수포(手泡)해 준다. 온열감(溫熱感)이 수지(手指)에 생기면 자율신경(自律神經) 중 부교감신경(副交感神經)의 활동이 증가되므로 신체가 이완된다. 일본(日本) 자율신경(自律神經) 권위자(權威者) 오바야시 히로유키(小林弘幸 : おばやし ひろゆき)는 "남성(男性)은 30세(歲) 이후、 여성(女性)은 40세(歲) 이후 부터 부교감신경(副交感神經)의 활동(活動)은 급속도(急速度)로 하강(下降)하므로 평상시 교감신경(交感神經) 우위(優位)의 상태(狀態)에 처해있기 때문에 신체는 긴장(緊張)되어 있고 진분(振奮)되어 있다고 발표했다. .그결과 하루 종일 초려(焦慮)와 불안(不安)이 조성되고 혈액순환(血液循環)이 악화(惡化) 상태이며 면역력(免疫力)은 저하(低下)되어 있고 수면(睡眠)에 영향을 미치므로 숙면을 취하기 어렵다.“ 고 설명했다. 2. 5 가지 좋은 일을 해라. 미국 캘리포니아대학교（University of California：UC）연구팀은 5 가지 소소(小小)한 선사(善事)를 베풀 경우 엔도르핀(Endorphin, Endogeneous Morphine)이 분비되므로 인하여 행복감(幸福感)을 높혀준다고 발표했다. 예를들면 쓰레기 줍기와 감사편지 쓰기와 좌석양보와 길 안내와 헌혈(獻血) 등등 이다. 또 캘리포니아대학 연구팀은 매주 날짜를 정하여 5 가지 작은 호사(好事)를 지속적(持續的)으로 6주(週) 동안 실행(實行)할 경우 행복감(幸福感)이 증가된다고 발표했다. 3. 허리를 곧게펴는 동작 : 미국 하버드대학교 연구팀은 실험(實驗)에 참가한 사람들을 A 조와 B 조로 나누고 A 조에게는 허리를 곧게펴는 동작(動作)을 2 분(分) 동안 유지하게 하고 B 그룹의 사람들에게는 허리를 굽히는 동작을 2 분 동안 유지하게 하였다. 실험결과 허리를 곧게펴는 동작을 실행한 A 그룹의 사람들의 스트레스 홀몬 코르티솔의 분비량이 25%감소되었으며 허리를 굽히는 동작을 실행한 B 그룹의 사람들의 코르티솔（cortisol）분비량은 15% 증가되었다. 이 실험으로 허리를 곧게 펴는 동작은 스트레스를 감저시켜 줌을 알게되었다. 또 허리를 곧게 펴는 동작은 대뇌(大腦)와 신체(身體)에 큰 영향을 미쳐 적극적(積極的)인 태도(態度)를 증가시켜 줌과 동시에 자신감(自信感)을증강(增強)시켜 준다. 4. 3 분 동안 발매(發呆 : 멍한) 상태 유지하기 : 초려(焦慮)와 불안감 때문에 직장내의 일이 순조롭지 못할 경우 미미한 발매(發呆) 상태를 유지하면 불량감정이 해소된다. 미국 워싱턴대학교 연구팀은 주의력(注意力) 집중(集中) 상태(狀態)에 비하여 발매시(發呆時) 대뇌(大腦)는 20 배(倍) 이상 활약한다고 발표했다. 사고(思考)가 곤란(困難)할 경우 대뇌(大腦) 전두엽(前頭葉 : preFrontal Lobe）등 부위(部位)가 일을 하고 기타(其他) 대뇌부위(大腦部位)의 효능(效能)은 강저(降低)되기 때문이다. 이와같은 경우 일부러 발매(發呆) 상태를 만들어 주면 대뇌(大腦)의 기타 부위가 활약(活躍)하기 시작하므로 인하여 각양각식(各樣各式)의 기억(記憶)과 정보(情報)가 용이하게 정리(整理)된다. 그러므로 근무 중 잠깐 시간을 내어 건물의 창(窗)밖의 풍경을 3 분 동안 멍하니 바라보고 있으면 근무효률(勤務效率)이 증가된다. 5. 행동(行動)의 변화 : 근무에 흥취가 없고 인생이 무료할 때 스트레스가 크다는 증거이다. 대뇌(大腦)에서 도파민이 분비될 경우 스트레스는 경감된다. 일본의 저명한 소설가(小說家) 무라카미 하루키(村上春樹(むらかみ はるき) : 1949년 1월 12일 ~ )는 소설을 쓰다가 내용(內容)에 혼란이 생기므로 인하여 소설을 계속 쓸 수 없을 때 서실(書室) 내에 4 시간 내지 5 시간을 조용히 앉아있는 습관이 있는데 그후 모든 스트레스가 완해된다고 한다. 행동의 변화는 대뇌를 활성화시켜 준다.

「E」자(字)발음 ＋ 5 분(分) 동안 머리쳐들기 :

「E」자(字)발음 ＋ 5 분(分) 동안 머리쳐들기 : 이 동작은 폐염(肺炎)의 발병률을 강저(降低)시켜줌과 동시에 예방해 주고 치료해 준다. 사람은 연령(年齡)이 증장(增長)함에 따라 체력(體力)이 종전과 다름을 인식하게 된다， 밥 입맛도 줄고 음식물 저작(咀嚼)하기도 힘들며 사래가 잘 들리고 인후(咽喉) 주위의 근력(筋力)도 점차 노화(老化)되고 쇠퇴(衰退)된다. 일본(日本)의 전국서점(全國書店)에서 「가정의학(家庭醫學)」계통의 베스트셀러는《肺炎がいやなら、のどを鍛えなさい（번역：폐염(肺炎)에 걸리지 않으려면、인후(咽喉)를 단련(鍛鍊)해라.》인데 저작자(著作者)는 10,000 명 이상(以上)의 환자들을 치료(治療)한 명의(名醫) 니시야마코이치로(西山耕一郎: にしやま こういちろう) 의사(醫師)이다， 니시야마코이치로(にしやま こういちろう)는 40 세(歲) 부터 인후가 퇴화(退化)되기 시작하여 음식물을 삼킬 때 자주 사래가 들리며 해수(咳嗽)가 심한데，이는 인후 주위의 근육 퇴화(退化)의 경보신호(警報信號)라고 말했으며 간단(簡單)한 단련(鍛鍊) 방법으로 인후의 근육을 강건하게 해주므로써 10년 수명(壽命)이 연장(延長) 가능하다고 말했다. 노년인(老年人)들이 폐염(肺炎)으로 인한 사망률(死亡率)은 높은데 인후 근력(筋力)의 단련으로 예방(預防)할 수 있다. 일본호흡계통학회(日本呼吸系統學會)에서 " 폐염(肺炎)에 이환(罹患)된 노년인(老年人)들의 70% 이상은 흡입성폐염(吸入性肺炎)이며 반복감염발작(反覆感染發作)이 용이하게 유발된다. 치료(治療)가 곤란(困難)하므로 고령환자(高齡患者)들의 사망률(死亡率)이 높은 원인(原因)이다." 고 발표했다. 서산(西山) 의사(醫師)는 흡입성폐염(吸入性肺炎)을 방지하기 위한 가장 중요한 대책(對策)은 인후근력이 약화(弱化)되기 전(前)에 인후와 폐부(肺部)와 전신(全身)의 근력(筋力)을 증강시켜 주어야 한다고 말했다. 폐염(肺炎)은 약물(藥物)을 사용하여 치료 가능한데 항약성(抗藥性)의 위험성(危險性)이 있다. 그러므로 평상시 인두와 후두(喉頭) 주위(周圍)의 근육을 단련(鍛鍊)시켜 주는 것이 가장 중요하다. 인후 5분(分) 단련법(鍛鍊法) : 일본(日本) 동경(東京) 치과대학 호원현(戶原玄) 부교수(副教授)는 "기관(氣管)의 상방(上方)에 자리잡고 있는 후두개(喉頭蓋 : epiglottis)는 음식물이 식도로 넘어갈 때 음식물의 일부가 기도로 넘어가지 못하게 즉시 기관(氣管)을 막는다. 그러나 연령(年齡)이 증장(增長)함에 따라 후두개의 근력(筋力)이 쇠퇴(衰退)되므로 후두개가 기도와 식도를 닫았다가 열어주는 속도가 지완(遲緩)되거나 미약(微弱)해 짐으로 인하여 음식물(飮食物)이 용이(容易)하게 기관(氣管)으로 진입 될 경우 해수(咳嗽)는 물론 사래가 들린다. 음식물의 일부나 타액(唾液)이 기관(氣管) 속으로 진입될 경우에 폐(肺) 속의 잡균(雜菌)들이 증생(增生)한다. 그결과 흡입성폐염(吸入性肺炎)이 유발된다."고 설명했다. 니시야마코이치로(にしやま こういちろう) 의사(醫師)와 일본(日本) 미산치과병원 (米山齒科病院) 미산무의(米山武義) 원장(院長)은 몇 가지 인후근력(咽喉筋力) 훈련법(訓練法)을 제창하였다. 매일 5분(分) 씩 실행하는 간단(簡單)한 단련(鍛鍊)이다. 허약(虛弱한 환자(患者)들은 활력(活力)이 증진되고 10년 수명(壽命)이 연장(延長)된다. 《인후체조(咽喉體操) 단련법》 1. E 자(字) 체조(體操): 영어의 「E」자(字)를 발음(發音)할 때의 입모양을 하고 동시에「E──」라고 길게 발음한다. 반복(反覆)하여 5 차레 내지 10 차례 실시한다. 2. 대두체조(抬頭體操) : 베개 없이 마루 바닥에 천정을 바라보고 들어누운 자세에서 머리만 위로 높히 쳐들어 각첨(腳尖 : 발끝)을 30 초 내지 60 초(秒) 동안 쳐다보고 있다. 5 차례 내지 10 차례 반복 실시해 준다.

90세(歲) 이상의 일본(日本)의 장수촌민(長壽村民)들은 40세(歲)의 생리상태(生理狀態)를 보유(保有)하고 있다.

90세(歲) 이상의 일본(日本)의 장수촌민(長壽村民)들은 40세(歲)의 생리상태(生理狀態)를 보유(保有)하고 있다. 인체(人體) 내에서 분비되는 허다한 홀몬은 생리상태(生理狀態)와 심리상태(心理狀態)를 조절해 준다. 「회춘(回春) 홀몬」이라고 칭하는 DHEA 는 뼈를 보호해 주는 공능과 혈관(血管)을 보호해 주는 등 다종(多種) 공능(功能)이 있으며 현대 의학계(醫學界)에서 관심을 집중하고 있다. 일본(日本)의 경도(京都) 북부(北部) 지역에 자리잡고 있는 일개(一個) 소진(小鎮)에 거주하는 고령자(高齡者)들의 DHEA 분비량(分泌量)은 전일본(全日本)에서 가장 높으므로 과학자들이 주목(注目)하고 있다. 이 지역 고령자들의 DHEA 분비량은 기타 지역의 고령자들의 분비량의 3 배(倍)이다. 일본(日本) 경도부(京都府) 북부(北部)의 경단후시(京丹後市)에 거주하는 75명의 백세노인(百歲老人)들의 DHEA 의 분비량은 일본(日本) 평균치(平均値)의 3배(倍)로 나타났다. 기무라지로에몬(木村 次郎右衛門（きむら じろうえもん) : 1897년 4월 19일 - 2013년 6월 12일)은 116세 54일 동안 생존하다가 노쇠(老衰)와 폐염(肺炎)으로 인하여 사망하므로써 세계 최장수 남성자 명단에 올랐다. 기무라지로에몬(木村 次郎右衛門 : きむら じろうえもん)은 인류사상(人類史上) 남성(男性)으로써 116세(歳)의 장수기록을 달성(達成)한 사람이며 직업은 우편국(郵便局) 직원(職員)이었다. DHEA 의 분비량(分泌量)은 20세(歲) 때 가장높다. 경도부립의과대학(京都府立醫科大學)의 심혈관(心血管)과 신장내과(腎臟內科) 전문의사 장성명(場聖明) 교수(教授)는 대규모(大規模) 조사(調查)에 착수하였다. 이 지역에 거주하고 있는 고령자(高齡者)들의 체내에서 분비되는 DHEA 의 수치는 기타 지역의 고령자들의 분비량의 수배(數倍)에 달하며 이 지역의 92 세(歲) 여성(女性)들의 DHEA 수치(數值)는 기타 지역의 40세(歲) 여성들의 DHEA 수치와 상당(相當)하다고 발표되었다. 일본(日本) 복강대학(福岡大學) 의학부(醫學部) 내분비당뇨과(內分泌糖尿病科)의 DHEA 연구(研究) 권위자(權威者) 유뢰민언(柳瀨敏彥) 교수(教授)는 "DHEA 는 부신(副腎 : adrenal glands)에서 분비되는 일종(一種)의 스테로이드（steroid）홀몬인데 청춘기(青春期) 이후에 대량(大量) 분비(分泌)되며 20세(歲) 때 최고봉에 달하며 매(每) 10년 마다 29% 의 속도9速度)로 감소(減少)된다." 고 설명했다. DHEA 의 하강속도(下降速度)가 더딘 사람들은 장수(長壽)한다고 과학자들에 의하여 발표되었다. 다음은 DHEA 의 주요(主要) 공능(功能)이다. ： 1. 콜레스테롤의 체내(體內) 퇴적(堆積)을 방지해 준다. DHEA 는 콜레스테롤의 원료(原料)이며 DHEA 가 대량(大量) 분비(分泌)될 경우 혈지량(血脂量)을 강저(降低)시켜 주므로 인하여 혈관(血管)의 건강(健康)을 유지해 준다. 2. 골질(骨質)의 유실(流失)을 방지해 주므로 골밀도(骨密度)를 증가시켜 준다. 유뢰(柳瀨) 교수(教授)는 60세(歲) 이상(以上)의 고령자(高齡者)들에게 지속적(持續的)으로 DHEA 약물(藥物)을 투여(投與)하였다. 그결과 수시자(受試者)들의 골밀도(骨密度)가 현저(顯著)하게 상승됨을 발견하였다. 장교수(場教授)는스스로 장수촌을 방문하여 고령자(高齡者)들을 만나서 인터뷰한 결과 장수촌 노인들의 생활습관(生活習慣) 중 DHEA 대량분비(大量分泌)를 촉진시켜 주는 다음과 같은 양대(兩大) 공동점(共同點)을 발견하였다. ： 습관(習慣) 1： 취미생활(趣味生活) : 장교수(場教授)는 부신(副腎 : adrenal glands)은 스트레스에 약한 일개(一個) 내장기관(內臟器官)인며 일상생활 중 스트레스를 많이 받을 경우 체내(體內)에서는 대량(大量)의 스트레스 홀몬인 코르티솔(cortisol）이 대량 분비되는데 상대적으로 DHEA 의 분비량(分泌量) 은 대폭 감소된다고 말했다. 장수촌 지역 노인들은 젊었을 때 부터 직장 외(外)에 허다한 시간(時間)들을 취미생활에 투여한다. 예를들면 수공예(手工藝)와 낚시질과 회화(繪畫)나 서예(書藝)나 바둑과 장기나 포커게임 등을 즐기는데 이와같은 생활방식(生活方式)은 부신(副腎 : adrenal glands)에 부담(負擔)을 적게주며 DHEA 를 지속적(持續的)으로 분비(分泌)시켜 준다. 습관(習慣) 2：대량(大量)의 비타민 C 섭취 : 당지(當地)의 명품「경단후산수사(京丹後散壽司)」는 풍부한 채소를 사용하여 만든다. 예를들면 토마토와 브로콜리와 상추와 오이 등을 스시의 재료로 사용하는데 집안에 있는 채소밭에서 생산된 유기농 채소들인며 비타민 C가 풍부하게 함유되어 있다. 이다. 유뢰(柳瀨) 교수(教授)는 인체내의 좌우 콩팥 위에 각각 한개씩 있는 3각형의 작은 내분비선인 부신(副腎 : adrenal glands, suprarenal glands) 속에 최고농도(最高濃度)의 비타민 C 가 함유되어 있다고 설명했다. 그러므로 평상시 섭취하는 음식 중 비타민 C 가 대량(大量) 함유되어있을 경우 부신의 피로(疲勞)를 방지(防止)해 주고 부신기능(副腎機能)의 쇠퇴(衰退)를 방지해 주므로 인하여 DHEA 의 분비량이 증가된다. 장교수(場教授)는 장수건강(長壽健康)을 원하는 사람들은 비타민 C 가 함유되어 있는 식물(食物)을 다량 섭취해 주고 여가를 선용하여 취미생활을 영위할 경우 부신이 건강해져서 회춘(回春) 홀몬이 대량 분비되기 때문에 젊어진다고 설명했다.

복창문제(腹脹問題)를 해결해 주는 3 종(種) 식물(食物) :

복창문제(腹脹問題)를 해결해 주는 3 종(種) 식물(食物) : 식사를 하며 말을 할 경우 또는 코가 막혀서 입으로 숨을 쉴 경우 공기가 위속으로 진입된다. 공기(空氣)의 주요성분(主要成分)은 산소와 질소이며 산소는 소장(小腸)을 통과하자 마자 체내로 흡수되지만 질소는 대장(大腸) 속으로 진입(進入)되어 창기(脹氣)를 유발시킨다. 다음은 복창문제(腹脹問題)를 해결해 주는 3 종(種) 식물(食物)이다 : 1. 셀러리 : 영양학가(營養學家) Nikki Ostrower 는 "셀러리 속에 함유되어 있는 단백질의 함량은(蛋白質)의 함량(含量)은 일반 채소의 1 배(倍)이고 철(鐵)의 함량(含量)은 토마토의 20 배(倍) 좌우(左右)된다. 비타민 B 의 함량(含量)도 높고 칼슘과 인(磷)과 철(鐵) 등 광물질(礦物質) 원소(元素)의 함량(含量)도 일반(一般) 녹색채소(綠色菜蔬) 보다 높다. 셀러리는 이뇨제(利尿劑)이며 사약(瀉藥)이고 간장(肝臟)의 충혈(充血)을 완해(緩解)시켜 주며 복창(腹脹)을 해결해 주는 공효(功效)가 있다." 고 설명했다. 2. 당근 : 당근 속에 흡수성(吸水性)이 강(強)한 식물섬유(植物纖維)가 대량 함유되어 있으므로 인하여 장도(腸道)의 연동(蠕動) 운동을 가강(加強)시켜 주고， 변비(便秘)를 예방해 준다. 동시에 혈액(血液)을 정화(淨化)시켜 주고 소화불량(消化不良)과 복창문제(腹脹問題)를 치료해 주며 간장(肝臟)의 잡질(雜質)을 청소해 주는 효능이 있다. 셀러리는 오이와 마찬가지로 이뇨제(利尿劑)이며 복창문제(腹脹問題)로 고민하는 사람들은 셀러리와 당근과 오이 즙(汁)을 매일 1 컵 내지 2 컵 음용할 경우 위기(胃氣)가 신속하게 개선된다고 Ostrower 는 설명했다. . 3. 열차(熱茶) : 영양학가(營養學家) Paula Simpson 는 식사 후에 한 컵의 열차(熱茶), 예를들면 박하차(薄荷茶)나 생강차나 민들레차를 음용 할 경우 소화(消化)를 촉진시켜 주므로 복창(腹脹)을 감소(減少)시켜 준다고 설명했다. 또 박하(薄荷) 속에 함유되어 있는 박하뇌(薄荷腦 : menthol) 성분(成分)은 해경(解痙) 작용(作用)이 있으며 초려(焦慮)와 스트레스를 감소시켜 준다.

1. 쥐띄(鼠)ᅟ남성(男性) ：

1. 쥐띄(鼠)ᅟ남성(男性) ： 쥐띄 남성들은 부지런하고 알뜰하게 집안 살림을 꾸려나가며 개성(個性)이 있다. 쥐띄(鼠) 남성들의 마음 속에는 현모양처(賢母良妻) 유형(類型)의 여성(女生)을 제 일 순위로 꼽는다. 쥐띄 남성들은 반려자(伴侶者)의 가정배경(家庭背景)과 착의용모(着衣容貌)에 신경을 쓰지 않는다. 여성이 부지런하며 알뜰하게 집안 살림을 잘 꾸려가는 것을 좋아한다. 동시에 사상과 감정이 서로 맞아야 함은 물론 서로 사상(思想)을 교류하되 원의(願意)가 서로 일치하기를 바란다.

소띄 여인(女人) :

소띄 여인(女人) : 천성적(天性的)으로 선량(善良)한 품성을 갖고 태어났다. 소띄 여성들의 용모는 대부분 대단히 예쁘게 생겼다. 가정생활(家庭生活) 중(中)，소띄 여인(女人)들은 남편을 비교적 자상하게 돌보고 살뜰히 보살펴 준다. 소띄 여성들은 윗 사람이나 아랫 사람들에게 의무와 책임을 다한다. 천성적(天性的)으로 선량(善良)하며 선사(善事)를 베풀어 준다. 그러므로 소띄 여성과 결혼하는 남성들은 복(福)이 있다.

닭띄(鷄) 여인(女人) :

닭띄(鷄) 여인(女人) : 닭띄 여성은 행동거지가 단정하다. 천생적(天生的)으로 우아(優雅)한 화신(化身)이다. 개성(個性)이 있고 부지런하며 알뜰하게 집안 살림을 잘 꾸려나간다. 결혼 후 남편에게 충성스러운 마음이 굳어 변하지 않는다. 남편이 경제적으로 어려움에 봉착하여도 난관(難關)을 함께 잘 헤쳐나간다. 남편과 동고동락하는 역량이 강하고 자녀(子女) 교육열(教育鴷)이 강하여 후대(後代) 배양(培養)에 비상하게 우수(優秀)하며 출중(出眾)하다. 닭띄 여성들은 마음씨가 좋아서 닭띄 여성과 결혼하는 남성은 복(福)이 있다.

뱀띄 여자(女子) :

뱀띄 여자(女子) : 외모(外貌)는 단정하고 성격(性格)은 비교적 침온(沉穩)하다. 언제나 당황하지 않고 침착하며 매사에 두려움이 없다. 비교적 활기가 없고 저조한 편이다. 뱀띄 여자(女子)들은 결혼 후 남편을 비교적 자상하게 돌보고 살뜰히 보살펴 준다. 외모(外貌)는 타인의 추종을 불허한다. 뱀띄 여자(女子)의 심령(心靈)은 아름답고 슬기롭고 영리하다. 특별히 노인(老人)들에게 효순(孝順)하며 자녀(子女)들에게 의무와 책임을 다하므로 남성들의 이상적(理想的)인 결혼(結)婚) 대상이다. 뱀띄 여성들은 결혼 후 현처(賢妻)이든가 양모(良母)이다.

대장암과 히카마 :

대장암과 히카마 : 히카마(jicama) 속에 다량 함유되어 있는 이눌린(inulin) 성분은 대장암에 걸릴 확률을 강저시켜 주며 대장암 세포의 전이를 방지해 주고 대장암 세포의 생장을 억제시켜 준다고 영국영양학저널(British Journal of Nutrition)에 발표되어 있다. 다음은 이눌린(Inulin)을 풍부하게 함유하고 있는 식물들이다. : 아스파라거스, 마늘, 리크, 돼지감자, 양파, 히카마.

황반부 병변은 성인 제 3대 실명(失明)의 원인이다.

황반부 병변은 성인 제 3대 실명(失明)의 원인이다. 3C 란? (1). 컴퓨터（Computer）(2). 통신（Communication，핸드폰）(3) 가전제품(소비자전자: Consumer Electronics）의 3 종(三種) 산품(產品)의 대명사이다. 장시간(長時間) 핸드폰을 사용하고 컴퓨터를 사용할 경우 적당(適當)한 휴식(休息)이 필요한데 눈의 극한상황(極限狀況) 까지 도전하는 사람들이 많다. 황반부병변(黃斑部病變)은 시력(視力)의 침묵 킬러(Killer)이다. 2010 년(年)에 세계보건기구(WHO)는 황반부병변(黃斑部病變)과 백내장(白內障)과 청광안(青光眼 : 녹내장)은 성년인(成年人)들의 3대 실명원인(失明原因)이라고 발표했다. 한쪽 눈 속에 흑점(黑點)이 출현되거나 찌그러지거나 비뚤어진 선(線)이 나타 날 경우 황반부병변(黃斑部病變)을 의심해 보는 것이 현명하다. ●주의(注意)를 기울여야 할 사람들 ： 황반부위(黃斑部位)는 시망막(視網膜)의 중앙(中央)에 자리잡고 있는데 직경이 5.5mm 정도되는 타원형이다. 황반에는 시세포와 시신경이 집중되어 있어 시력에 결정적인 영향을 미침과 동시에 시망막(視網膜)의 일부로써 황색소(黃色素)를 다량 함유하고 있기 때문에 황반부(黃斑部)라는 이름을 얻었다. 안과의사(眼科醫師)들은 황반부병변(黃斑部病變)과 나이와 계통성질병(系統性疾病)과 고도(高度)의 근시(近視)는 서로 밀접한 관계를 갖고 있다고 말한다. 노년성(老年性) 황반부(黃斑部) 병변(病變)은 연령(年齡)이 증장(增長)함에 따라 시망막(視網膜) 중앙부위(中央部位)가 퇴화(退化)되어 출현된다. 당뇨병(糖尿病)과 고혈압(高血壓) 등 계통성적 만성질병환자들은 황반부병변(黃斑部病變)이 용이하게 출현된다. 그외 고도(高度)의 근시(近視)가 있는 사람들도 황반부병변 이환률(罹患率)이 증가한다. 그러므로 고도(高度)의 근시인(近視人)들의 정기적(定期的) 안과검사(眼科檢查)는 매우 중요하다. 평상시 눈을 보양(保養)해 주는 5대(五大) 방법(方法) : 1、눈을 사용하는 습관(習慣) 조정(調整) ; 장시간(長時間) 근거리(近距離) 사용시 섬모근（ciliary muscle）은 지속적(持續的)으로 긴장상태에 처해 있으며 이완되지 않기 때문에 경련(痙攣)이 용이하게 조성된다. 그 결과 근시(近視)의 도수(度數)가 증가한다. 그러므로 30분(分) 동안 컴퓨터를 사용한 후 5 분(分) 동안 휴식을 취해 주어야 한다. 오야족(熬夜族)들과 장시간 눈을 사용하는 사람들은 평상시 핸드폰과 컴퓨터의 광도(光度)를 실내광선(室內光線)과 일치시켜 두는 것이 눈에 유리하다. 광도가 높을 경우 눈을 자극시켜 주므로 눈이 상한다. 섬모근(ciliary muscle)이란? 모양체라고도 불리며 수정체를 에워싸는 제방(堤坊) 모양으로 원형(圓形) 구조를 이루고 있다. 2、자외선(紫外線與)과 남광(藍光 : BluRay)의 상해(傷害)를 피해야 한다. 자외선(紫外線)이 강렬시(強烈時) 썬글라스를 착용해야 되며 실내(室內)에서 3C 산품(產品)을 사용시 항남광안경(抗藍光眼鏡)을 착용하므로써 눈(眼睛)의 상해(傷害)를 피해야 한다. 30 분(分) 동안 3c 제품을 사용하고 나서 10 차례 눈을 깜박거려 주면， 누수(淚水)의 증발(蒸發)을 예방(預防)해 준다. 3、정기(定期) 시력검사(視力檢查) : 황반부(黃斑部) 병변(病變) 초기(初期)에 증상(症狀)이 없다. 그러므로 정기적(定期的)으로 시력검사와 시망막검사(視網膜檢查)를 하는 것은 필수적(必須的)이다. 특별히 고도(高度)의 근시자(近視者)들은 반년(半年) 마다 일차(一次) 동공확장검사(散曈檢查)를 해야한다. 4、금연 : 유행병학자(流行病學者)들의 조사 연구 결과 흡연인들의 눈병 발병률은 비흡연인들 보다 2 배 내지 5 배(倍)가 더 높다고 발표되었다. 5、눈에 유리한 영양소(營養素) 섭취 : 옥수수와 호박과 달걀과 시금치와 브로컬리와 당근과 포도와 노랑색 피망과 붉은색 고추와 감(柿)과 오렌지와 모과(木瓜)와 망고 등 엽황소(葉黃素 : 루테인）를 풍부하게 함유하고 있는 식물을 섭취해 주어야 한다. 조기(早期) 황반퇴화(黃斑退化)와 병변(病變)은 시력(視力)에 영향을 미치는 정도가 다르다. 그러나 시야(視野)에 흑영(黑影)이나 직선이 비뚤어지게 보이는 증상(症狀)이 출현(出現)할 경우 전문의사의 치료를 받아야 한다. 눈을 사용하는 유익한 습관을 드려야 함은 물론 정기적으로 시력검사(視力檢查)를 해야하고 자외선(紫外線)과 남광(藍光 : 푸른 광선)을 피하고 엽황소(葉黃素)를 풍부하게 함유하고 있는 식물(食物)을 잊지말고 섭취해 주어야 한다.

저작근(咀嚼筋) 안마(按摩)는 두통(頭痛)과 이명(耳鳴)과 수겸(瘦臉)을 개선(改善)시켜 준다.:

저작근(咀嚼筋) 안마(按摩)는 두통(頭痛)과 이명(耳鳴)과 수겸(瘦臉)을 개선(改善)시켜 준다.: 저작근(咀嚼筋)은 음식물을 씹는 근육(muscle of chewing/ muscle of mastication)이라고 칭하며 (1). 교근(咬筋 : masseter), (2). 측두근(側頭筋 : temporalis), (3). 내측익돌근(內側翼突筋 : medial pterygoid), (4). 외측익돌근(lateral pterygoid)의 4 개의 근육으로 조성되어 있다. 어느 40세(歲)의 일본(日本) 여성(女性)은 갑자기 오른쪽 귀에 동통감(疼痛感)이 시작되더니 청력이 하강되어 사람들의 말소리를 잘 듣지 못하였다. 최후로 입을 벌리기 조차 힘들었다. 그녀는 이비인후과(耳鼻咽喉科)를 찾아가서 진단을 받았다. 검사(檢查) 결과 아무 이상이 없었다. 그리하여 이비인후과(耳鼻咽喉科) 의사는 그녀를 치과의사에게 보냈다. 치과의사는 그녀에게 저작근안마(咀嚼筋按摩)를 받게하였다. 저작근안마 치료를 받는 도중에 귀의 동통(疼痛)은 점점 소실(消失)되었다. 그녀는 치과의사가 자기의 충치를 치료하고 이빨을 교정(矯正)할 줄 믿었었다. 현재 일본(日本)의 치과병원(齒科病院)에서는 일종(一種)의 특별한 요정(療程)──「저작근안마(咀嚼筋按摩)」가 유행하고 있다. 저작근(咀嚼筋)은 인류(人類)가 음식물을 저작(咀嚼)할 때 사용하는 근육이다. 그러나 현대인(現代人)들의 음식(飲食)은 부드러워서 저작근(咀嚼肌)을 잘 사용하지 않기 때문에 저작근의 강경(僵硬)과 쇠퇴(衰退)로 인하여 얼굴 부위의 혈액순환(血液循環)이 불량(不良)해 짐과 동시에 근력(筋力)이 저하(低下)되므로 인하여 각종(各種) 질병을 유발시켜 준다. 저작근(咀嚼筋) 안마(按摩)의 제 일목적은 「저작운동(咀嚼運動)을 정상(正常)으로 회복(恢復)시켜 주는 것이다. 마아(磨牙)와 아관긴교(牙關緊咬 : Clenching）등 문제(問題)를 해결해 주고 악관절증(顎關節症)으로 인한 동통(疼痛)을 경감(減輕)시켜 주며 미용효과도 있고 타액(唾液)의 분비량(分泌量)을 증가시켜 주므로 구건(口乾)을 개선시켜 준다. 그 뿐만 아니라 두통과 훈현(暈眩)과 이명(耳鳴)도 치료해 준다. 저작(咀嚼)은 4 개의 근육(筋肉)의 협력(協力)으로 완성(完成)된다. 일단(一旦) 저작근이 강경(僵硬)되고 위축(萎縮)될 경우 각종(各種) 신체(身體)의 부적(不適)을 조성(造成)한다. 측두근(側頭筋)이 강경(僵硬)될 경우 두통(頭痛)과 안정피로(眼睛疲勞)가 조성(造成)되며 입을 벌리지 못한다. 측두근(側頭筋)이 이완될 경우 3차신경(三叉神經)의 긴장(緊張)이 완화(緩和)되며 안정(眼睛)과 두부(頭部)가 청상(清爽)해 진다. 교근(咬筋 : masseter)의 긴장상태(緊張狀態)가 지속될 경우 악관절증후군(顎關節症候群)이 발생되며 교근(咬筋)이 이완될 경우 용이하게 입을 벌릴 수 있으며 악관절증후군(顎關節症候群)을 개선시키는 효과(效果)가 있다. 교근(咬筋)의 강경(僵硬)을 소제해 주는 안마는 저작곤란(咀嚼困難)과 수겸(瘦臉)도 개선시켜 줌과 동시에 피로(疲勞)를 소제(消除)해 준다. 일본(日本)의 정체사(整體師 : bodywork therapist) 무로하라 시즈코 : むろはら しずこ)는 골격(骨骼) 교정요법(矯正的療法) 전문가인데 근육(筋肉)을 이완시켜 주므로써 뼈를 정상 위치로 복원(復原)시켜 주는 정골사(整骨師)이다. 현재까지 5500 명의 겸부(臉部)의 문제와 두통(頭痛)의 번뇌(煩惱)를 저작근 안마를 시술하여 해결해 주었다. 다음은 《교근(咬筋 : masseter) 이완법》의 내용의 일 부이다. STEP 1. : 두 손으로 귓밥을 잡고 뒷쪽으로 원을 그리며 돌려준다. 귀는 교근과 연접되어 있으므로 이 동작은 교근을 이완시켜 줌과 동시에 단련시켜 준다. STEP 2.: 두 손바닥을 양쪽 볼에 대고 숨을 크게 내쉰다. 토기시(吐氣時) 긴장되어 있던 교근이 이완된다. STEP 3.: 10 분 동안 왼쪽 손바닥을 오른쪽 뺨에 대고 문질러 줌과 동시에 오른쪽 팔을 흔들어 준다. STEP 4.: 저작근 중 태양혈(太陽穴) 주위에 있는 측두근(側頭筋)은 아래턱을 위로 올려주는 힘이 가장 강하다. 엄지 손가락의 지복(指腹)을 태양혈에 대고 안마해 준다.

손의 저림과 통증을 개선(改善)시켜 주는 자가요법(自家療法) :

손의 저림과 통증을 개선(改善)시켜 주는 자가요법(自家療法) : 장시간(長時間) 컴퓨터 사용으로 인하여 발생되는 수근관증후군(Carpal tunnel syndrome）을 대부분의 사람들은 대수롭게 여기지 않는데 손의 마비를 조성한다. 수근관증후군(Carpal tunnel syndrome)은 대무지(大拇指)와 식지(食指)와 중지(中指)와 무명지(無名指)를 마비시킨다. 또 척골신경포착증후군(Ulnar nerve entrapment : cubital tunnel syndrome)은 소지(小指)와 무명지(無名指)를 마비시킴과 동시에 통증도 수반한다. 손과 팔에 있는 3 개의 주요신경(主要神經) 중 하나인 척신경(尺神經 : Ulnar nerve)은 목으로 부터 시작하여 팔꿈치 부근(附近)을 통과하며 팔꿈치의 내측(內側)의 툭 튀어나온 돌출골두(突出骨頭)의 하방(下方)을 통과한다. 이 부위에는 소량(少量)의 연조직(軟組織)으로 구성(構成)된 협착(狹窄)한 통로(通路)가 있는데 이를 주관(肘管)터널 또는 가이언터널이라고 칭한다. 가이언터널을 통과한「척신경(尺神經 : Ulnar nerve)」은 소지쪽 손바닥에 분포한다. 척신경(尺神經)의 위치(位置)는 매우 얕아서 팔꿈치 부근(附近)에서 용이하게 압박(壓迫)과 자극(刺激)을 받는다. 척신경이 압박을 받을 경우 소지(小指)와 반쪽 무명지(無名指)에 감각(感覺) 이상이 출현된다. 1. 척신경(尺神經) 압박(壓迫)의 원인 : ◆팔꿈치를 만곡(彎曲)할 경우 팔꿈치의 내측에 툭 튀어나온 뼈 부근을 통과하는 척신경(尺神經)은 늘어난다. 그러므로 팔꿈치를 구부리고 있는 시간이 길거나 반복해서 팔꿈치를 구부렸다 폇다 할 경우 동통(疼痛) 증상(症狀)이 출현한다. ◆장시간(長時間) 팔꿈치를 짚고 있을 경우 척신경에 압박(壓迫)을조성(造成)한다. ◆팔꿈치 부근에 액체(液體)가 퇴적(堆積)될 경우 종창(腫脹)이 발생되므로 척신경을 압박(壓迫)한다. ◆팔꿈치의 내측(內側)을 모서리에 부딪힐 경우 동통(疼痛)과 산마감(痠麻感)이 발생되며 동시에 소지(小指)와 무명지(無名指)에 마목(麻木)이 출현된다. 2. 척신경(尺神經)이 압박(壓迫)을 받을 경우 나타나는 증상(症狀) : ◆자동차 운전을 할 때나 핸드폰을 사용할 때 처럼 장시간 팔꿈치를 구부리면 무명지와 소지에 마비가 오고 통증이 발생된다. 심한 경우 수면중에 수지(手指)의 마목(麻木)으로 인하여 잠에서 깨어 일어난다. ◆팔꿈치 만곡시(彎曲時) 무명지와 소지에 무감각 증상이 출현된다. ◆악력(握力)이 감약(減弱)되고 수지(手指)의 협조(協調)가 곤란(困難)해 진다. 그 결과 타자（打字)나 악기樂器）연주(演奏)가 불편해 진다. 이와같은 증상(症狀)이 빈발할 경우 비교적 엄중(嚴重)한 척신경압박(尺神經壓迫)이다. ◆신경압박(神經壓迫)이 비교적 엄중(嚴重)하거나 장시간(長時間) 지속(持續)할 경우 근육쇠약（muscle wasting）의 문제(問題)가 야기된다. 근육쇠약은 원상태로 역전(逆轉)되기 어려우므로 전문의사와 상담하는 것이 현명하다. 주의사항 : 1. 장시간(長時間) 팔꿈치를 만곡(彎曲)하는 동작(動作)을 피해야 한다. 장시간(長時間) 컴퓨터를 사용하지 말아야하며 의자(椅子)의 높이가 너무 낮으면 머리를 쳐들어야 하고 팔꿈치를 더 많이 구부려야 한다. 2. 수면 중 팔꿈치를 구부리고 잠을자면 않된다. 3. 서있는 자세에서 두 팔을 앞뒤로 흔들어 주는 운동은 팔꿈치와 팔목의 강경감(僵硬感)을 완해시켜 준다. 4. 두 팔을 앞으로 쭉 펴고 있는 자세에서 손과 손가락만 신체(身體) 방향으로 구부린다. 다시 반대 방향으로 젖힌다. 반복 실행해 주며 마지막으로 팔꿈치를 구부려 준다.

독일연구：악력(握力)이 강하면 강할 수록 사망률(死亡率)은 더욱 더 강저된다.

독일연구：악력(握力)이 강하면 강할 수록 사망률(死亡率)은 더욱 더 강저된다. 악력(握力)과 심장병(心臟病)과 중풍(中風)과 관계가 있다고 종전에 과학자들에 의하여 발표되었다. 그러나 이번에 독일의 과학자들은 악력(握力)과 사망률(死亡率)과 관계가 있다고 증명하였다. 1. 악력(握力)은 사망률(死亡率)에 영향을 미친다. 독일의 과학자들은 교육배경(教育背景)이 다르고、경제수준(經濟水準)이 다른 러시아인과 영국인(英國人)과 덴막인들을 상대로 조사연구하였다. 악력(握力)이 강하면 강할 수록 사망률(死亡率)은 더욱 더 강저된다고 발표했다. 악력(握力)이 1kg 더 강해질 경우 러시아 남성(男性)들은 사망률(死亡率)이 4％ 강저되었고、러시아 여성(女性)들은 10％ 강저되었다. ；영국(英國)의 남녀(男女)는 2％、3％ 각각 강저되었다. 덴막의 남녀(男女)는 6％, 8％ 각각 강저(降低)되었다. 플로리다 대학교 연구팀은 종전에 당뇨병(糖尿病) 환자와 고혈압(高血壓) 환자(患者)들의 악력(握力)은 점차 퇴화(退化)된다고 발표했다. 또 미국(美國)의 과학자들은 4년(年) 내(內)에 악력(握力)이 5kg 하강(下降)될 경우 사망률(死亡機)은 16％ 증가(增加)되었다고 발표했으며 심장병(心臟病)에 걸릴 확률은 7% 증가되었고 뇌중풍(腦中風)에 걸릴 확률은 9％ 각각 증가되었다고 발표했다.

•일본(日本) 내과의사(內科醫師)의 혈관회춘술(血管回春術) : 탈발(脫髮)과 백발(白髮) 개선(改善) :

•일본(日本) 내과의사(內科醫師)의 혈관회춘술(血管回春術) : 탈발(脫髮)과 백발(白髮) 개선(改善) : 인체(人體) 내의 혈관(血管)의 90% 는 모세혈관(毛細血管 : capillary）이다. 운동부족(運動不足)과 비만시(肥滿時) 혈관세포(血管細胞)는 노화(老化)되므로 인하여 모세혈관 내의 혈액(血液)의 유통은 완만해 지는데 이와같은 혈관을 「유령혈관(幽靈血管)」이라고 칭한다. 유령은 즉 혈전이며 혈전(血栓)은 은형살수(隱形殺手)라고도 칭한다. 혈관(血管) 속의 유령(幽靈)이란? 혈관(血管)을 폐색하는 혈전이며 일단 혈액(血液)의 유동(流動)이 차단될 경우 순환계통(循環系統)의 탄환(癱瘓)이 발생하며 심한 경우 사망을 초래한다. 현대인들에게 혈전의 출현은 연령(年齡)과 시간(時間)에 상관없이 생명(生命)을 위협한다. 피부(皮膚)에 주름쌀이 형성되고 피부의 색깔이 암침(暗沉)해 질 경우，유령혈관(幽靈血管)이 발생(發生)했다는 증거이다. 또 두피(頭皮)에 백발(白髮)이 출현되고 탈발(脫髮) 현상(現象)이 출현되면 유령혈관이 발생했다는 표시이다. 혈 관기능(血管機能)이 감약(減弱)된 상태에 처해 있을 경우 엄중(嚴重)하며 면역공능(免疫功能) 문란으로 인하여 당뇨병(糖尿病) 발생률과 이암률(罹癌率)을 높혀준다. 일본(日本)의 내과의사(的內科醫師) 아카사와스미요(赤澤純代 : あかさわ すみよ)와 임송언(林松彥)은 환자(患者)의 대다수는 각부혈류불통(腳部血流不通)으로 인한 각부강경(腿部僵硬)으로 병원을 찾는다고 말했다. 과부(踝部 : 복숭아뼈 부위)와 슬개(膝蓋) 부위는 혈액(血液)의 유통(流通)이 가장 완만한 부위이다. 두 명의 의사는 환자들에게 각부(腳部) 정맥안마(靜脈按摩)를 실시하라고 권유한다. 지체(肢體)의 말초(末梢) 부위에 발생한 어혈(瘀血)을 심장(心臟)으로 회류(回流)케 촉진시켜 주므로써 혈관유령화(血管幽靈化)를 피해야 된다고 역설한다. 안마방법(按摩方法)： 1. 발가락 끝에서 부터 안마하기 시작하여 발톱 부위 까지 안마해 준다. 2. 각배(腳背 : 발등)으로 부터 소퇴(小腿 : 종아리)의 후측(後側)을 지나 대퇴(大腿)의 후측(後側)을 통과하여 서혜부(鼠蹊部) 까지 가볍게 안마해 준다. 3.신체의 말단인 발에있는 혈액을 심장으로 밀어 올려준다는 느낌으로 안마를 실시해 준다. 4. 소퇴(小腿 : 종아리)의 후측(後側)을 지나 대퇴(大腿)의 후측(後側)을 통과하여 서혜부(鼠蹊部)의 근육(筋肉)을 상하로 여러차례 안마해 준다. 임의사(林醫師)는 “부종(浮腫)也有可能是은 혈관(血管) 이상의 경보(警報) 신호 중 하나이다. 수분(水分)이 요액(尿液)으로 배출(排出)되지 못할 경우 용이하게 인체부종(人體浮腫)이 조성(造成)되며 또 체내(體內)에 염분(鹽分) 과다시(過多時) 수분(水分)의 배출(排出)이 정지(停止)되므로 인하여 부종(浮腫)이 발생되는데 이는 혈관(血管)의 노화(老化)를 의미해 줌과 동시에 고혈압(高血壓)과 동맥경화(動脈硬化)에 걸릴 확률을 증가시켜 준다.” 고 설명했다. 칼슘은 염분을 체외로 배출시켜 주는 물질임과 동시에 소종(消腫)시켜 주는 물질(物質)이다. 적당량의 칼슘을 섭취할 경우 혈압(血壓)이 조정(調整)된다. 황두분(黃豆粉 : 콩가루) 속에 풍부한 칼슘이 함유되어 있다. 매(每) 100g 의 황두 속에 2000mg 의 칼슘이 함유되어 있다. 하루 칼슘 섭취량은 420mg 인데 3 숟갈의 황두분(黃豆粉)에 해당된다. 그러나 신장질병(腎臟疾病)이 있는 사람들은 의사(醫師)와 상담한 후 섭취하는 것이 현명하다

손의 악력(握力)이 약한 사람들이 뇌중풍(腦中風)에 걸릴 확률은 1.6 배(倍) 높다.

손의 악력(握力)이 약한 사람들이 뇌중풍(腦中風)에 걸릴 확률은 1.6 배(倍) 높다. 병마개를 손으로 돌려서 열기 힘든 사람은 손의 악력(握力)이 비교적 약한 사람이며 심근경색(心筋梗塞)과 뇌중풍(腦中風)에 걸릴 확률이 1.6 배(倍) 높다고 캐나다 온타리오 주 해밀턴에 위치한 연구 중심 공립대학교인 맥마스터 대학교（McMaster University)의 Daryl Leon 교수는 발표했다. Daryl l Leon 교수 연구팀은 17개(個) 국가(國家)의 35세로 부터 70 세(歲) 사이의 남녀(男女) 139,691명을 실험대상으로 손의 악력(握力)과 체력(體力)을 4년(年) 동안 검측(檢測) 추종(追蹤) 조사하였다. 그결과 악력(握力)이 5kg 이하인 사람들의 사망률(死亡率)은 16% 증가(增加)되었다고 발표했다. 심혈관질병(心血管疾病)에 걸릴 확률은 17% 증가(增加)되었고、심근경색(心筋梗塞)에 걸릴 확률은 7% 증가했으며 뇌중풍(腦中風)에 걸릴 확률은 9% 증가되었다고 발표했다. Daryl Leon 교수는 악력저하(握力低下)와 전신체력(全身體力) 저하(低下)는 서로 밀접한 관계를 갖고 있다고 발표했다. 그는 의사들이 고령자(高齡者)들의 건강을 진찰(診察)할 경우，악력(握力)을 검측(檢測)해 볼 필요가 있다고 주장했다. 고령자(高齡者)들은 須鍛鍊提升 전신(全身)의 근육력(筋肉力)을 증강시킬 필요가 있다. 일본(日本) 후생노동성(厚生勞動省)의 과학자들은 복강현(福岡縣) 구산정(久山町)에서 40년(年) 이상(以上) 거주한 주민(住民)들을 20 년(年) 동안 추종조사(追蹤調查) 연구(研究)하였다. 연구결과 악력(握力)이 강한 사람들이 악력이 약한 사람들 보다 사망률(死亡率)은 평균 40% 낮다고 발표했다. Daryl Leon 교수는 악력(握力)은 전신(全身)의 근력(筋力)을 대표한다고 설명했다. 고령자(高齡者)들은 하반신(下半身) 근육단련(筋肉鍛鍊)에 힘써 발목의 접질림과 삐는 것을 예방(預防)해야 한다고 말했다. Daryl Leon 교수는 남성(男性)의 악력(握力)의 기준(基準)은 30kg 이상이고，여성(女性)들의 기준은 25kg 이상이다고 설명했다. 수부(手部)와 둔부(臀部)와 근건(筋腱)과 대퇴근육(大腿筋肉)을 단련(鍛鍊)시켜 주는 간단(簡單)한동작(動作) : 1. 수부(手部)의 근육(筋肉)을 단련(鍛鍊)시켜 주는소프트 파워 볼(Soft power ball) 단련(鍛鍊) : (1)、소프트 파워 볼을 손바닥의 중안에 놓고 주먹을 폈다 오무렸다 반복해 줄 경우 수완(手腕)의 악력(握力)을 증가시켜 준다. (2)、소프트파워볼을 대무지(大姆指)와 식지(食指) 사이에 끼고 주먹을 쥐엇다 폈다해 줄 경우 수부의 소근육(小筋肉)을 훈련시켜 준다. 2. 단각(單腳) 첨립(站立) 단련(鍛練)은 둔부(臀部)와 대퇴근육(大腿筋肉)을 단련시켜 준다. (1)、오른쪽 발을 사용하여 일분(一分) 동안 서있다. (2)、좌측 발만 사용하여 일분(一分) 동안 서있다. 3. 굴슬운동(屈膝運動)은 후퇴건근(後腿腱筋)을 단련(鍛鍊)시켜 준다. (1)、의자의 등받이를 붙잡고 쭈그리고 앉은 자세에서 (2)、천천히 일어서는데 이때 소퇴와 대퇴의 각도를 90도로 유지한다. 다시 원위치로 돌아온다. 10차례 반복(反覆)해 준다

The Future of Gelatine Has Just Begun –

The Future of Gelatine Has Just Begun – Its Multi-faceted History Is Proof The foodstuff gelatine has had a long and successful history. In ancient times it was used as a ‘‘biological adhesive’’, and in the course of time it progressed to industrial manufacture and diverse applications. Some 8000 years ago, cave dwellers in what is now the Middle East were able to produce glue from animal tissues. Some 3000 years later, the Ancient Egyptians were well aware of its functionality and used a type of wood glue produced from collagen as an adhesive to glue their items of furniture together. And, at the court of Henry VIII of England (1491–1547), pickled dishes with ‘‘glittering calves’-foot jelly’’ were on the menu at every banquet. It was in the Napoleonic era, however, that gelatine experienced its first real boom: it was used as a source of protein to feed the French when meat became scarce during the blockade of their ports by the British navy. And, of course, modern pharmaceuticals and photography would be unthinkable today without gelatine. The use of gelatine for health purposes has been documented since as early as the Middle Ages. For example, Hildegard von Bingen, Benedictine Abbess and universal scholar, recommended in her ‘‘Physica’’ around 1150 that ‘‘frequent and adequate’’ portions of a broth made from calves’ feet was good for joint pain. Today, science has proven just how right she was. 1.1.2 It All Began with Glue However, archeologists have established that certain forms of crude gelatine were used much earlier. Chemical and microbiological analyses carried out at the Weizmann Institute in Israel on samples taken from a cave near the Dead Sea clearly show that its inhabitants in the New Stone Age knew much about the adhesive strength of collagen glue and used it for numerous purposes. Discoveries 1 Gelatine Handbook: Theory and Industrial Practice. R. Schrieber and H. Gareis Copyright 8 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 978-3-527-31548-2 in both Deir el Bahari (in the funerary temple of Queen Hatshepsut) and in Thebes [1] (today’s Luxor) also unambiguously prove that animal glue was used in Egypt at the time (see Fig. 1.2). This form of glue, so-called glutin glue, is still produced today from the collagen of animal hides. In addition, some pyramid texts indicate that the Egyptians also used bones in the preparation of various broths and soups [2]. Thus, the use of gelatine for the preparation of food during the first few centuries AD can be clearly established. During this period, the bone and hide of animals was boiled to obtain glue. However, a different kind of product was also obtained – a raw extract that, when cooled, solidified to produce what in fact was the ‘‘original form’’ of edible gelatine. Fig. 1.1 Gelatine has had a long and successful history. The granulated types are today’s most common grades for industrial use. Fig. 1.2 The Ancient Egyptians used glutin glues for furniture production. This glue is still produced today from the collagen of animal hides and bones in some countries, including Egypt. 2 1 Introduction 1.1.3 Pure Luxury for Kings and Aristocrats For centuries, gelatine was a luxury item; it was used to prepare an extravagant jelly for dishes presented at court and in aristocratic villas. It was only in the late 17th century that scientists started propagating its nutritional and physiological qualities. In 1682 the French mathematician Denis, Papin invented a pressure cooking pot [3] called a ‘‘digester’’ that made it possible to cook bones until soft. Papin recommended using the stock produced for preparing soups; he even suggested to King Charles II of England in 1681 that ‘‘the jelly produced from bone be used as a general foodstuff for the people.’’ 1.1.4 During the Napoleonic Wars, Gelatine Was Systematically Researched as a Source of Protein Gelatine’s popularity as a foodstuff came about during the Napoleonic Wars. The blockade of the French ports by the British navy during the wars meant a shortage of meat protein for the population. Politicians and scientists initiated a search for possible alternatives and in fact found one – gelatine. In 1803 and 1818, the administrator of the Military Hospital in Paris, Anton Alexis Cadet de Vaux, published reports on ‘‘gelatine produced from bones and on the resulting bouillon’’. A commission headed by the chemist d’Arcel used these to compile methods for manufacturing gelatine. Gelatine as a source of protein for nutritional purposes was then systematically researched and its manufacture and application improved. The obvious consequence was the industrial production of gelatine. The first company to manufacture gelatine on an industrial scale was Coignet & Cie., founded in 1818 in Lyons, France. The company improved production in two areas: it was the first company to use ‘‘hide split’’ (so-called ‘‘glue leather’’) as a raw material (see Section 2.2.2), and it introduced a process for the industrial drying of thick gelatine leaves. This remained the method of choice until Fig. 1.3 Manufacture of gelatine was extremely work-intensive until the middle of the 20th century. Here, packing of the dried gelatine sheets. 1.1 Gelatine – Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow 3 the middle of the 20th century. The first products to be sold under the label ‘‘powder gelatine’’ were no more than ground thick leaves or bars of gelatine. 1.1.5 Suddenly, Medicines No Longer Had a Bitter Taste Almost at the same time, the first new applications for gelatine were developed. The first breakthrough came about in 1833 when French pharmacist Mothes was granted a patent for the manufacture of gelatine capsules (French Patent No. 9690). These ‘‘original capsules’’ were produced by immersing a small leather sack filled with mercury into a concentrated solution of gelatine. The chilled and dried gelatine film which looked like a capsule was then stripped from the leather bag. These capsules enabled drugs to be dosed more easily and, for the first time, to be better protected from the effects of heat, cold, and humidity. More importantly, however, the medicines they contained no longer tasted bitter. Later, American companies became technology leaders in the manufacture of capsules. In 1897 [4], the company Eli Lilly, based in Indianapolis, IN USA, started filling powders and granulates into very thin, two-part hard gelatine capsules. By 1913, the company had also developed and globally introduced the first automatic method for the production of hard gelatine capsules. The process for the simultaneous production of ‘‘bodies’’ and ‘‘caps’’ was introduced in 1931 by Parke, Davis & Company in Detroit, MI USA. Fig. 1.4 Construction plan of a hard shell capsule machine from the patent application of Parke, Davis & Company, 1931. 4 1 Introduction Around 1930, a further pioneering invention revolutionized the manufacture of soft capsules: Robert P. Scherer invented a machine for the automatic and continuous manufacture and filling of soft gelatine capsules, a process that very soon spread throughout the world (see Fig. 1.5). Gelatine, however, was also used in other pharmaceutical applications: it was used, for example, for coating tablets and microcapsules, thus reliably protecting the active substances contained in them from the effects of light and atmospheric oxygen. It is not only this effective barrier function that makes gelatine so valuable in pharmaceutical production; its high degree of compatibility and extremely low allergenicity make it an ideal component of drug systems. These particular properties have also been utilized in applications in medicine: since the 1940s, for example, gelatine sponges have become indispensable as hemostats against surgical bleeding (see Fig. 1.6). Interestingly, this has a connection with the early history of gelatine: during the 3rd century, the Chinese and Japanese used gelatine for this specific purpose [5]. A further example is in the area of emergency medicine, where gelatine-based substances are used as blood replacement agents or plasma expanders (see Fig. 1.7). These were intensively researched during the First World War [6] and successfully used on a large scale during the Second World War. 1.1.6 Gelatine Helped to Popularize Photography The history of photography would also have been quite different without gelatine. The decisive breakthrough was made by Frenchman Louis Jacques Mande´ Daguerre (1787–1851), who developed the ‘‘Daguerreotype’’ process of photographic printing. The process, however, was somewhat complex and difficult to handle. In addition, it was only possible to prepare unique original positives. These were expensive, and hence the hobby of photography was restricted to those who could afford it. Fig. 1.5 Two of the first soft shell capsule machines of Robert P. Scherer, who revolutionized the manufacture of soft gelatine capsules with his development. 1.1 Gelatine – Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow 5 Making photography uncomplicated, important for its widespread popularity, was made possible half a century later with the help of gelatine. From 1880 onwards, ready-to-use dry photographic plates coated with gelatine emulsion became available. With these, it was possible to produce negatives and therefore many positives. However, photography was only finally popularized by George Eastman who, in 1888, introduced his famous ‘‘Kodak Number 1’’ camera (see Fig. 1.8). This made it possible for the amateur photographer to produce photos at reasonable cost as the easy-to-use camera worked with rolls of film instead of plates. An indispensable aspect of the exposure and development of the films was the coating of the photographic paper with high-quality gelatine. The gelatine used had to be chemically pure and particularly uniform in terms of its viscosity and texture. The companies involved in the photographic business, although many, like Kodak, had their own gelatine manufacturing plants, soon started to cooperate with specialists in photographic gelatine. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, such specialists were to be found particularly in Germany and France. The close cooperation that followed soon led to both industrial areas becoming closely knit, at least in part. In 1921, for example, George Eastman and Heinrich Stoess, after a long and successful transatlantic cooperation, founded together the first German-American joint venture after the First World War – the Odin Factory in Eberbach, Germany, the plant supplying Kodak with its photographic gelatine (see Fig. 1.9). Also, Agfa AG, at the time one of the largest of Kodak’s competitors in Europe, concluded a contract with DGF (Deutsche Gelatine Fabriken AG) in Go¨ppingen Fig. 1.6 Gelatine sponges are available in a variety of shapes to stanch surgical bleeding in different areas of the human and animal bodies. 6 1 Introduction and Schweinfurt in Germany whereby DGF AG agreed to supply all of Agfa’s requirements for photographic gelatine. In 1964, in fact, Agfa AG itself started producing gelatine: it acquired completely the company Koepf & So¨hne and from then until the year 2000 produced part of its total requirement of gelatine at its own plant in Heilbronn, Germany. 1.1.7 Magically Appearing Text The contracts between Kodak and Stoess on the one hand and Agfa and DGF on the other were quite different in nature. However, they had one thing in common: as with all documents at the time, they were duplicated using carbon paper. This changed dramatically in the 1960s: Barrett Green and Lowell Schleicher of the company NCR invented the microcapsule for carbonless paper that was based on the reaction between gelatine and gum arabic (US Patent No. 72 800 457). This enabled special dyes to be embedded in microscopically small capsules that were Fig. 1.7 Blood plasma substitutes based on gelatine are widely used for the temporary replacement of blood in the circulatory system after surgery or accidents. 1.1 Gelatine – Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow 7 coated onto the reverse side of the paper to be written on (see Fig. 1.10). The pressure exerted by either the pen or the typewriter keys caused the capsules to rupture, hence releasing an initially colorless amount of ink. A special coating on the upper side of the copy then rendered the ink visible, and the text appeared as if by magic! This ended the period of black ‘‘carbon fingers’’ in many a typing pool. Fig. 1.8 Advertisement for the ‘‘Kodak Nr. 1’’ camera which worked with rolls of film instead of plates. This made it possible to produce photos in an easy way and at reasonable cost. 8 1 Introduction 1.1.8 Gelatine Literally on Everyone’s Lips A further important step that made gelatine ubiquitous in its use was the introduction of household packs of granulated gelatine in the United States in 1890 through the efforts of Charles Knox (see Fig. 1.11) and in Germany, during the period of worldwide economic recession, through DGF AG. This single event made gelatine into a basic and very popular ingredient for numerous foodstuffs and brought about its use on a worldwide basis. Another major move to make gelatine more widely known was made by Peter Cooper in the United States when, in 1845, he obtained the first patent for a gelatine dessert. In 1897, the product was improved by adding fruit flavors and was named JELL-O1. The first recipe book was published in 1904. Sales of JELL-O1 are currently about 300 million boxes per year in the United States. A different way of offering gelatine desserts to the public was developed in Great Britain by Fig. 1.9 In 1921, George Eastman and Heinrich Stoess established a joint venture – the Odin Factory in Germany. The plant supplied Kodak’s factories world-wide with its photographic gelatine for close to 20 years. Fig. 1.10 Carbonless paper forms are covered on the back with gelatine microcapsules filled with ink. The capsules collapse and release the incorporated dye as a result of the pressure of the pen when writing. 1.1 Gelatine – Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow 9 the company Rowntree. Starting with a similar product to JELL-O1 in 1923, they started marketing concentrated cubes called Jelly Tablets in 1932. These also contained different fruit flavors (see Fig. 1.12). Although the product was very successful in Great Britain, it never managed to be marketed on a broader scale abroad. Ever since, not only the food industry but also gelatine manufacturers have been continuously developing new applications for gelatine. Further aspects of its multifunctional properties were discovered and made available via new products to consumers. Many of these products were literally on everyone’s lips: Fig. 1.11 Household packs of granulated gelatine were introduced in 1890 by C. Knox and soon became very popular in the United States. Fig. 1.12 Jelly Tablets are concentrated gelatine cubes containing sugar and different fruit flavors. After mixing with hot water and then chilling, the dessert is ready to eat. 10 1 Introduction marshmallows were introduced into the United States in the early 1900s and became extremely popular by the 1950s, in 1930 the now-famous gummy bears were introduced, and by the 1970s gelatine enabled fruit yogurts without the filmy layer of whey on the surface to be developed (Fig. 1.13). At the end of the 1970s, hydrolyzed gelatine became one of the top topics on the talk shows on American TV. The result: the calorie-reducing ‘‘liquid protein’’ created a record-breaking demand. Gelatine was also significantly involved in the worldwide success of the low-fat margarines and sandwich spreads invented by Lage Sundstroem in Sweden that, by 1984, were being produced on an industrial scale (US Patent No. 4071634). Gelatine was the emulsifier and stabilizer used to ensure the consistency and spreadability demanded by consumers. 1.1.9 An Essential Element of Our Daily Lives Today, gelatine is a modern product with a very wide range of uses. It is an essential element of our daily lives, even if this is not obvious at a first glance. Match heads contain gelatine and digital holiday snapshots can be printed on topquality, gelatine-coated ink-jet photographic paper or, traditionally, on classical photographic paper in the photo laboratory. Gelatine has also been proven to be effective as a cleansing agent and is used in the clean-up and refurbishment of buildings contaminated with asbestos. It is also used for the restoration of historical documents. Furthermore, it helps to support healthy joints and bones, and has many other uses. However, in spite of these numerous applications, not all of the many and various functional properties of gelatine have been exhaustively researched. The highly versatile history of gelatine has shown that its future has in fact just begun. Fig. 1.13 Today, gelatine is a very popular ingredient in numerous foodstuffs. Confectionery products are by far the largest application area for gelatine around the world. 1.1 Gelatine – Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow 11 1.2 The Development of the Gelatine Industry This chapter will give an overview of the development of the industry over more than 200 years from small local manufacturing through growth periods to global players. Because of the limited space available in this book, very small operations and companies of little importance or significance for the general development of the industry or which disappeared rapidly have been ignored. Company names have been abbreviated. 1.2.1 Period 1800–1865 In this early period, gelatine was produced for edible purposes solely on a private level or by small businesses on a semi-commercial scale. But some small glue manufacturers already existed and saw the possibility of changing their production to the manufacture of gelatine. France The first production of gelatine on an industrial scale by the company Coignet was reported in 1818 for their plant in Barabon-sur-Rhoˆne (see Section 1.1). Soon after, they acquired further small glue and gelatine plants in France and Belgium and also started exporting. In 1839, the business of Weishardt started what was most likely the first glue manufacturing facility in the south of France. Belgium/England In the following years, small companies started in Belgium and most likely also in Great Britain. However, no details are known. Germany In 1840, the first German gelatine plant of O. Lindenbauer was established, but during the next 25 years only three more were built, including the company Creutz, which subsequently existed for more than 100 years as an independent small gelatine company. There is no information about the size of production available from those times, but it is very likely that even the best and largest plants did not produce more than 10 000 kg per month. The raw materials used in those times were hide pieces, but also bones collected from butchers and residues from those businesses making combs and buttons from bone were used. Most of the process development was transferred from France to other countries. The product made had the form of thick gelatine plates, like those of chocolate. After the invention of the use of gelatine for the photographic process in several steps between 1839 and 1856, the best qualities of edible gelatine were chosen for this application. The general interest in gelatine production also became 12 1 Introduction obvious, and it must have been profitable because soon more and more gelatine companies were founded. 1.2.2 Period 1866–1900 France The existence of four more glue and gelatine plants in France in 1875 is reported. These also supplied products to Germany. In 1891, E. Rousselot founded the company Rousselot which manufactured glue, and he acquired two additional glue plants in France in 1894 and 1900. His gelatine production is confirmed for 1909 but may have started earlier. These were the roots for today’s second largest gelatine manufacturer in the world. Belgium Efficient, well-known manufacturers must have existed, because purchases from this region are reported by German companies. In 1895, a plant processing Indian bone was built (Socie´te´ Anonyme de Vilvorde) next to an existing plant (Socie´te´ Anonyme de Grimbergen). Both establishments merged in 1911 and are the roots of today’s company PB Gelatines. Great Britain The company W. Oldroyd started gelatine production in Widnes – which was later an important gelatine site, and B. Young changed his production in London from glue to gelatine. About 1900, C. Simeons, the son of a German gelatine manufacturer, came to England and founded the companies C. Simeons and the British Gelatine Works in Luton to manufacture photographic gelatine. The Luton plant later (1920) became part of British Glues & Chemicals and afterwards part of the Croda company. United States Several gelatine plants were established during this time. In 1890, C. Knox founded Knox Gelatine, but no details are available about production. In 1888, some 92 glue plants existed in the United States, but it is not known to what extent they also produced gelatine. One of those glue plants was owned by Peter Cooper, who had purchased a glue plant in 1820 in New York City. He invented several pieces of labor-saving equipment for manufacturing gelatine, and in 1845 he obtained the first American patent for his process. Germany Gelatine manufacturing became very popular during this time, and a total of 16 plants are reported by 1900. Some were based on modified glue plants, and others started when tanneries decided to upgrade the value of their by-product hide splits and pieces instead of selling or dumping them. 1.2 The Development of the Gelatine Industry 13 The following were the roots of today’s GELITA AG, the world’s largest manufacturer of gelatine. In 1867, A. Schmitt started his gelatine production in Schweinfurt, and in 1872 C. Heinrichs founded a gelatine plant in Ho¨chst, which was then merged in 1889 with the Schmitt company to form the first DGF. In 1880, the brothers Paul and Heinrich Koepff, who ran a tannery, founded a gelatine and glue plant in Go¨ppingen. Their relative, Jacob Koepff, founded a gelatine plant in Su¨ssen in 1889. In 1888 H. Stoess established the Heidelberger Gelatine- Fabrik Stoess in Ziegelhausen (close to some large tanneries) and soon specialized in the production of photographic gelatine. The glue plant of Caesar & Ewald was founded in 1886 because several tanneries were in the neighborhood. Mr. Ewald was a businessman and Mr. Caesar had experience in tanning. In 1906 they changed from glue to gelatine plates. Today they are still a major manufacturer of edible leaf gelatine. The other plants founded during this period had disappeared by this time. The production of photographic gelatine increased rapidly after 1880, and included exported material. During this period, about 100 tons/annum of photographic gelatine was exported from Germany to the United States, mainly to Eastman Kodak. Only for Germany are best-estimated production figures (all kinds) available: 1880 approx. 200 tons 1890 approx. 400 tons 1900 approx. 1200 tons. During this period, the gelatine plates produced became thinner, and the description ‘‘leaf gelatine’’ was created. The thinnest leaves have proven to be of the best quality – a rule which is still valid today. In this period the milling of plates and leaves was also started for the manufacture of powder gelatine. Local fresh bones, partly degreased with solvents, and hide splits and pieces were the raw materials used during this period. However, calf heads and legs were also common. The manufacture of ossein started in Germany after the first attempts in France. Regarding the location for a gelatine plant, some basic requirements had to be fulfilled: 1. Nearby raw material supply, at that time mainly tanneries. Long transport routes for material comprising 80% water was expensive, as it is today, especially as the raw material degraded rapidly during long periods of transport. 2. Adequate availability of fresh water wells for groundwater, springs, or good quality river water. 3. Location away from housing areas because of the odor of the raw materials and from the plant. 4. Close to a river or the sea shore, primarily for disposal of the effluent, but also to transport raw materials and final products. 5. For fuel for firing the boilers, the availability of wood and coal. 14 1 Introduction 6. A location close to forests was also an advantage because of the requirements for the drying of the gelatine. A forest cleans the air of dust and also has a moderating effect on the climate. This was important because at that time no air conditioning for drying the air was available. Because of this, it is reported that the gelatine quality in winter months was superior of that of summer months. Some companies even manufactured only during winter. 1.2.3 Period 1901–1914 France This was a period of rapid growth for the gelatine industry. In France, both Coignet and Rousselot developed their businesses very successfully. In 1901 Rousselot acquired the plant in Camp-Major near Marseille; after this they built the plant in Angouleˆme near Bordeaux, and in 1913 the construction of the plant in Islesur- Sorgue near Avignon was commissioned. And they also acquired an ossein plant and a glue and gelatine plant in Belgium. Angouleˆme and Isle-sur-Sorgue are still major manufacturing plants of Rousselot today. In 1908, La Socie´te´ des Colles et Ge´latines Francaises was founded to manufacture hide gelatine and glue in two plants. One was destroyed during the war and was rebuilt in 1922 in Attichy to manufacture bone gelatine; it also specialized in the manufacture of hard shell capsule gelatine. The Compagnie des Ge´latines Francaises (CGF) also became an important supplier of photographic gelatine. In 1971, the Attichy plant was purchased by Rousselot. It was shut down in 1981 after complete know-how transfer because of over-capacity within the Rousselot group. Belgium It is also surprising to see the development of the glue and gelatine industry in a small country like Belgium during this period. Eleven manufacturing companies existed at places around Vilvorde and Ghent, which are still the locations for large gelatine plants. So they must have been successful in their export business. Germany Four new companies went into operation. The Koepff brothers split their business into the Go¨ppinger Gelatine-Fabrik Paul Koepff and the company Koepff & So¨hne in Heilbronn, which in 1964 became part of Agfa AG. Also of importance was the foundation of the Chem. Fabrik Calbe which, after World War 2, became the major manufacturer of gelatine in East Germany until its liquidation in 1991. In 1911 the Go¨ppingen company of Paul Koepff and the DGF company in Ho¨chst merged, DGF thus becoming the largest manufacturer in Germany. 1.2 The Development of the Gelatine Industry 15 Because of the technology transfer, the production methods of the gelatine plants became more and more similar. The French companies had by this time lost their leading position. The business in gelatine and glue was quite profitable, and a lot of money was invested in expansion and modernization of the plants. In 1912/13, DGF built the most modern and largest gelatine plant in Europe and most likely in the world. In 1914/15, they produced 614 tons of leaf gelatine, of which 258 were for photographic purposes. Great Britain In England, a new company, Cleveland Products, was established in 1907 to manufacture gelatine from ossein. This company was also merged in 1920 into British Glues and Chemicals along with four other companies. The Netherlands The Dutch company Lijm and Gelatine Fabrik Delft, which was established in 1885 and started the production of bone glue in 1887, partly moved into gelatine production in 1911. Australia/New Zealand Until 1913, there was no gelatine production in the Pacific area. In that year, C. Davis, who had formed the New Zealand Glue Company in Auckland in 1889, changed another hide glue plant, which he had bought in Christchurch in 1909, into gelatine manufacturing, and Davis Gelatin was founded. The technology used was imported from England. The business progressed rapidly, and sales were soon extended to both Canada and Australia, so that it became necessary to import large quantities of raw materials from Australia. United States At the same time, the granulated gelatine of Kind Gelatine in Camden NJ, a company founded in 1908 by M. Kind, became very popular in the United States. Most of it was sold to the ice cream industry. Kind had learned how to make gelatine in his family business in Czechoslovakia. In the same year the first gelatine was manufactured by the American Glue Company in their plant in Peabody MA. The Boston area was at that time very popular for its tanning industry, and Peabody was called ‘‘Leather City’’. Eastman Kodak soon became the principal customer for this plant. Some technical exchange was initiated to produce high-quality photographic gelatine. Some time before this, George Eastman almost went bankrupt when batch after batch of his photographic glass plates produced poor results because of inferior gelatine from one of his suppliers. In 1930 the Peabody plant was purchased by Eastman Kodak and renamed Eastman Gelatine to ensure access to the high quality gelatine from this plant. At this time, close cooperation between the photographic companies and their gelatine suppliers started. The emulsion recipes and the gelatine used fitted like a key in a lock. For this reason Eastman Kodak and Stoess also intensified their business relationship. 16 1 Introduction During this period, the use of imported bone from overseas started in Europe because the local raw material supply of bone and hides was not sufficient and quality problems were experienced. In 1910/11 more than 23 000 tons of bone were exported from India to Belgium, and in 1913/14 this increased to 34 000 tons. In the same year 16 000 tons were exported from India to France and 10 000 tons to the United States. However, Brazil and Argentina also started to export bone to France, Germany and the United States. The best estimates for the total production of edible and photographic gelatine in 1910 are approx. 2000 tons each in France and Belgium. In 1913, production in Germany was most likely about 3500 tons. In 1913, the total gelatine production in the US is reported to have been approx. 5000 tons. 1.2.4 Period 1915–1918 The First World War had a very negative impact on overall gelatine production. Europe Raw material imports decreased, utilities were scarce, and production decreased in Germany in 1918 to about 1/3 of normal. The plants in Belgium also stopped production during the war. But in France, the Coignet plant in Isle-sur-Sorgue expanded, and very soon (in 1918) took advantage of the market demand. Mainly, the market for photographic gelatine was growing, which was related to the importance of the military use of the photography. However, quite apart from the war, there was still export business during this period. United States In the United States, Knox acquired an interest in the Kind gelatine plant in Camden NJ, because he saw his business mainly in marketing and less in production. Because of the cutting off of imports of ossein from Europe during the war, an ossein plant was built in Everett MA, which was in operation until the late 1940s. Australia/New Zealand In 1917, the first gelatine plant in Australia was established in a suburb of Sydney by the New Zealand-based Davis Gelatine. M. Davis wrote in his book on company history that the presence of many tanneries in this area and the plentiful supply of pure, fresh water in the sand beds beneath the property were the most important factors involved in selecting the location. 1.2.5 Period 1919–1939 Shortly after the end of the war, the gelatine industry recovered rapidly and expanded worldwide. 1.2 The Development of the Gelatine Industry 17 France In France, Rousselot in 1920 acquired a further gelatine plant in Strasbourg and in 1931 the plants in Angoule`me and Isle-sur-Sorgue; at the same time the business became a public company. Also in 1931, Rousselot started the production of photographic gelatine. A further step in their expansion was the foundation of a gelatine plant in 1936 in Clifford, England. However, during this period, France lost its leading position in the market, with a production of only approx. 4000–5000 tons in 1938. Belgium Substantial changes took place here. All companies expanded and, following a fusion, the company Ge´latines Hasselt & Vilvorde was established, which had had a production of approx. 4000 tons before the war. At that time, Belgium was most probably the largest gelatine manufacturing country in Europe, with more than 6000 tons/annum. In 1919, a bone-degreasing operation based on petroleum was established in Vilvorde, and in 1932 the name of Pont Bruˆ le´ Etablissements Duche´ was changed to Pont Bruˆ le´. Germany Of course, Germany suffered most from the war. However, good personal contacts helped to regain and even increase some export business afterwards. The war had created severe supply problems for the Eastman Kodak Corp., which had been supplied by Stoess and DGF. To develop this business further because of the good quality of the Stoess gelatine, the two companies founded a joint venture in 1921. This resulted in the Odin gelatine plant being built in Eberbach for the exclusive delivery of products for 20 years to the various plants of Eastman Kodak. In 1939, however, the plant was closed down because of the war. DGF on the other hand had made a contract with Agfa to supply them with gelatine. In the same period, two new gelatine plants were built in Germany, but many others disappeared. From a total of 26 plants built since 1840, only 11 remained in 1934 because of the worldwide economic crisis in 1929/33. But the industry recovered again from approx. 1000 tons in 1919 and reached a peak in production in 1938 with approx. 5000 tons. However, margins were extremely low. In 1929/31, the production of Stoess was moved from the Heidelberg plant to a new plant in Eberbach approx. 30 km away because of the need to expand. Because of the growing demand for bone gelatine, Ewald, in 1928, built a plant for the manufacture of ossein and also started the production of photographic gelatine, which ceased in 1960. Great Britain The foundation of British Glues and Chemicals in 1920 was an important step, which consolidated the business of five gelatine companies. Beside this, five more gelatine plants were established, of which that built in 1937/38 by Leiner in Treforest, Wales later became a very important factory. The 18 1 Introduction total production increased from 2400 tons in 1930 to 7000 tons in 1935, but the use of gelatine in England exceeded domestic production by approx. 3000 tons/ annum. United States Production showed rapid growth during this period. Thirteen plants manufactured more than 10 000 tons of edible gelatine in 1937, and a further approx. 3000 tons of edible gelatine was imported. For 1930, imports of approx. 600 tons of photographic gelatine from Germany were documented. During this period, the use of pigskin as a raw material was started by the company Swift in Chicago, a meat packing company, as was the gelatine plant of United Chemical and Organic Products (UCOPCO) in Calumet City/Chicago, part of Wilson & Co., another meat packer. This plant later became Dynagel and part of DGF Stoess. Also Grayslake Gelatin, which was founded in 1919, used pigskin as the sole raw material. This company ceased its production in 1982 because of the energy crisis. Eastman Kodak had had its own gelatine plant in Peabody since 1930 and built a further one in Rochester NY because of growing demand and quality problems with some purchased gelatines. The plant in Peabody still exists; the one in Rochester was closed in 1984. AGFA in Germany later produced also its own gelatine, in common with Konica and Fuji in Japan. In 1919 a gelatine plant was founded in Woburn, by five tanneries in that area. The first major customer was the owner of the Jell-O table jelly business. Production in 1920 was approx. 100 tons, and in 1921 it was approx. 300 tons. In 1922, a five-year contract was signed to supply 500 tons per year. The total production of that plant in 1924 was up to 1000 tons. In 1925, the Postum Cereal Company, later to be known as General Foods, purchased the Jell-O brand. Because of the high demand for gelatine for table jellies and to ensure a steady supply, General Foods acquired Atlantic Gelatin in Woburn in 1930, which then became the largest gelatine plant in the world after the war with about 10 000 tons/annum. Kind Gelatine, Camden was also of great importance, as was the gelatine plant Keystone in Dubuque IA, founded by American Agricultural Chemical, which owned two more small plants. Peter Cooper owned a gelatine plant (US Gelatin) in Oak Creek, using pigskin raw material. This was acquired in the mid 1970s by Rousselot. The raw material at that time was imported ossein. Japan The production trials for gelatine in Japan were started in 1926 by the company Nitta Belt. Local hide glue production had become important for the Nitta company after world war one because of import restrictions for many goods. As in many other countries, the production of glue started to be shifted into higher quality gelatine because, after the war, western products like ice cream, marshmallows, and jellies increased in popularity also in Japan. In 1930, a gold embargo was imposed, and the price of imported gelatine increased rapidly. Nitta 1.2 The Development of the Gelatine Industry 19 therefore started to produce gelatine on a regular basis in their Yao factory. Soon, several other companies followed suit. In 1932, Nihon-Hikaku (Nippi) evaluated the gelatine production based on hide splits in their Tokyo plant. In 1940 they built a new gelatine factory in Fujinomiya for photographic bone gelatine in close technical cooperation with Fuji. Because of growing demand, the Ministry of Commerce and Industry had, in 1933, decided to offer cash incentives for the domestic production of photographic film, which supported the foundation of Japanese photo manufacturers. These companies also started to search for close cooperation with domestic gelatine manufacturers. In 1934, Rokuo-sya (Konica) manufactured about 1000 kg per day together with Yasu Photo Chem. In 1937 a public grant was given to the Sanshine Chemical Institute because of the work of a researcher, G. Kobayashi, who had been working on photographic gelatine since 1920, to build a plant for photographic gelatine in Takarazuka, which, after the war, became part of the Konica company. The plant went into operation in 1939. Also, Fuji was involved during this period in investments in the Japan Chemical Industries to make gelatine in the factory, which became known, after 1941, as Fuji Film Kawakami when they acquired ownership. But this plant was closed in the 1950s. One of the reasons for the increasing photographic gelatine production was also the war between Japan and China in 1937, which made imports very difficult. Australia/New Zealand The Davis plants in New Zealand and Australia were also expanded during this period, and many overseas sales offices were established. During the 1930s, Davis supplied about 40% of the Canadian edible gelatine requirements and 55% of South Africa’s. South America In the early 1920s, the first gelatine plant in South America was established in Brazil north of Sao Paulo by a British meat packer called Angelo. But the business went bankrupt after a few years. Until the 1970s, slaughter was predominantly done in the south of Brazil, which was therefore also the location of the tanneries. But it took another 20 years before a second and very successful round of gelatine production started in South America. All the plants in the industry modernized on a step-by-step basis. Stainless steel started to play an important role in the equipment. Also, new equipment for jellifying the gelatine solution was invented to replace manual work in the production of gelatine leaves, which were still very common in Europe. More and more plants changed from expensive hide raw material, which was in short supply after the war, to bones, which were imported at very low cost from India, Brazil, and Argentina. In 1929/30, France imported approx. 11 000 tons from India, Belgium more than 50 000, Germany approx. 8000, the United States 11 000, and Japan 4000. In addition to this, the United States imported on average approx. 40 000 tons/ annum from Argentina in the period 1924/29. 20 1 Introduction 1.2.6 Period 1940–1948 The Second World War affected the whole European gelatine industry tremendously. Several plants were more or less completely destroyed and were not rebuilt. Others, which were less damaged, re-started with different products and reduced production. During the war, what production there was concentrated on photographic gelatine because of its military importance, most of the other plants in Continental Europe having closed down. France In 1947, Rousselot started to export gelatine again, and in 1948 DGF in Germany followed with photographic gelatine and in 1950 with edible gelatine. Germany In 1939 the cooperation between Eastman Kodak and Stoess was discontinued and the Odin plant stopped production. Very little production remained. Great Britain In Treforest (Wales), a new plant in was built by Leiner to manufacture hide gelatine. In 1943 they expanded the plant to produce bone gelatine based on imported bone from India and Pakistan, where they later installed their own bone mills. United States Production in the gelatine industry expanded strongly during this period because of the missing imports from Europe. In 1948/49, over-capacity was first reported, and in 1948 Atlantic Gelatine exported approx. 500 tons of photographic gelatine to Russia. In 1945, Hormel, a large meat packing company, established a gelatine plant in Austin MN based on pigskin from their own slaughtering plant. The gelatine plant was located in the same building. At that time, Hormel was the third meat packer to enter the gelatine business. Japan In Japan, the government reorganized the location of gelatine and glue plants to spread them over different regions and to ensure a reasonable size of the businesses (130 companies were merged into 9). In 1941, Miyagi Chemical Industries started to make gelatine from whale bones, and Fuji Film acquired the gelatine plant of Japan Chemical Industries. In 1944, Konishiroku (Konica) bought the Sanshine Chemical Research Institute and changed its name to Sanyo Military Use Photographic Gelatine Co., changing it again in 1948 to Takarazuka Gelatine. In 1945 Nitta Belt segregated its activities and established Nitta Glue & Gelatin. Spain In 1947 in Spain, a company named Junca started to manufacture hide glue in a little town close to Girona where many tanneries were located, because of a sur- 1.2 The Development of the Gelatine Industry 21 plus of water supply. Because Spain was relatively isolated at that time, it took about 20 years to develop into a regular daily gelatine production based on hides. Not far away, in Girona, another glue manufacturer, Pagans, founded in 1942, had a business based on bone. In 1948 their daily production of gelatine based on imported ossein was about 200 kg per day. South America The companies Sairsa, Rodrigues Pinto, and Rebiere were founded in the early 1940s in Brazil to manufacture glue and some gelatine. Sairsa and Rebiere had already been part of a tannery businesses and Rodrigues Pinto was also built close to a tanning facility. All were located within a radius of about 100–300 km north west of Sao Paulo. But as the companies grew in production they were forced to source their raw material hundreds of kilometers away because the tanneries had moved with the cattle herds further north. Rebiere is still an independent family business, Sairsa became a part of DGF Stoess and Rodrigues Pinto was acquired by General Brands, then Nabisco and today Kraft General Foods. Just after the war, the American Stauffer Chemicals completed a new gelatine plant in Buenos Aires to serve the local market. In 1965 Rousselot became a shareholder in this company. 1.2.7 Period 1949–1972 France After the war, Coignet and Rousselot were dominant in the French gelatine industry. The Weishardt company was of less importance until the 1960s. But then they expanded and started to export larger quantities of pigskin gelatine, mainly to Germany. Nevertheless, by the end of the war, Weishardt had serious cash flow problems and Rousselot acquired 30% of the shares in the company. One of the shareholders in the Coignet business, which had six plants for glue, gelatine, and bone degreasing, was at this time the large industrial company Ugine Kuhlmann, and this company acquired the business completely in 1965. Rousselot developed its business further with its four French plants for ossein and gelatine. In 1962, the gelatine plant in Ghent was acquired from Union Chimique Belgium. In 1964, the ownership in Rousselot was 75% the Rousselot family and 25% the large French St. Gobain corporation, a leader in the chemical industry. In 1965, Rousselot acquired a shareholding in the Argentinian Stauffer company to have better access to the South American markets. In 1968 the glue, gelatine, and raw material businesses of Rousselot and Ugine Kuhlman merged, Rousselot retaining a 66% majority. Belgium After the war, six plants remained in Belgium. The two largest in Ghent and Vilvorde are still important manufacturing sites. 22 1 Introduction In 1958, the ownership of the Vilvorde plant changed to Pont Bruˆ le´, the majority share of that company being acquired in 1964 by Produits Chimiques de Tessenderlo, a large chemical group which was itself mainly in the ownership of a French government-controlled company. In 1972, the gelatine-related activities were split off and became PB Gelatines. In 1972, the Vilvorde plant made its first attempt to move from bone and cow hides to pigskin. The plant of Hasselt & Vilvorde, also a major producer of leaf gelatine for household purposes, was closed in 1971 after acquisition by Rousselot, and the plant of TMB (Tannerie & Maroquinnerie Belges) in Zaventem was closed in 1978. Another plant in Zaventem (Colles et Ge´latines Zaventem) was acquired by Pont Bruˆ le´ in 1970 and closed after a short time. Germany The partition of Germany after the war placed three of its 11 companies in East Germany. Two of these plants did not start up again, and only the Chemische Fabrik Calbe became a state-owned company to supply the German Democratic Republic (DDR), other East European countries, and to some extent also Russia, mainly with photographic gelatine based on hides and bone. In addition, some pigskin use followed in the 1980s. After Germany’s reunification, the company went bankrupt in 1992 because DGF Stoess were not able to acquire the plant under acceptable terms. DGF repaired the Go¨ppingen plant and started to expand soon afterwards. In 1973, a brand new plant had double the capacity of the previous one. The Eberbach plant of Stoess was also modernized and expanded in the years 1966/67. In 1965, Stoess acquired the DGF shares, combined the activities in the market, and merged the two companies in 1972. By this time the DGF Stoess group was again a worldwide player in photographic, pharmaceutical, and edible gelatine. In the Eberbach plant, a large, modern semi-automatic drier for leaf gelatine was installed in 1967 after several less successful trials in the Go¨ppingen plant several years before. The Koepff plant in Heilbronn (result of the business split of the Koepff brothers in 1904) was also repaired and expanded, but on a step-by-step basis mainly with money from their main customer Agfa, who bought shares in the company. It is reported that in 1964 the shareholding of Agfa reached 75%. Thus, the company was renamed, and the name Agfa appeared for the first time in the new name. After 1965, the Chemische Werke Pfeffer in Memmingen changed their production from glue to gelatine. But in 1974 the plant was closed by the regulatory bodies because of environmental problems. In 1969 the Reinert family, a large trader of edible gelatine, acquired the small gelatine plant Herold (a DGF plant before the war) and built a new pigskin gelatine plant there in the 1970s. In 1951, the glue plant of Ratjen in Nienburg also started a gelatine production, which was soon expanded, and the plant was modernized. In 1965, the glue and gelatine businesses were separated, and a new company Nienburger Gelatine was 1.2 The Development of the Gelatine Industry 23 formed. Both businesses were acquired by the pharmaceutical company Schering in 1969, which was mainly interested in the glue business and had no expertise in the gelatine field. Thus, in the early 1970s, they started to look for a potential buyer. The Ewald company ceased the production of photographic gelatine around 1960 and concentrated more on leaf gelatine for households, bakeries, and catering. In 1971 the conversion of the raw material from hide splits and bone to pigskin started. Great Britain British Glues developed very successfully and in 1964 was the largest gelatine manufacturer in Europe. Part of their success was the establishment of modern bone degreasing plants in England, Austria, and the Netherlands for domestic bone. This gave them some quality advantages in photographic gelatine compared with the imported Indian bone. From 1949 through 1958, all plants were completely modernized. In 1968 Croda acquired British Glues, and the latter name disappeared. Croda was founded in 1925 as a chemical company to manufacture raw materials for the cosmetic and chemical industries. General chemicals and dyes, emulsifiers, and fat derivatives followed. The gelatine acquisition was carried out to add a further important pillar to the portfolio shortly after the company went public and had sufficient funds available. Leiner also expanded the plant in Treforest, mainly based on imported bone. In 1956, a new plant in Canada was built, but this shut down again after a short period because of a lack of raw material. Most of the equipment was shipped to Brazil (Cotia/Sao Paulo), where a new Leiner company, Cobrage-Compania Brasileira de Gelatinas, started production in 1959. Also in this period, Leiner founded a gelatine production enterprise in India (today Shaw Wallace/Narmada). In 1961, Leiner became the largest bone gelatine manufacturer in the world. After 1959, Leiner tried to manufacture pigskin gelatine; this proved to be a fiasco and forced the company into bankruptcy in 1980. The small Rousselot plant in Clifford was not of importance at that time, and the same was true of Gelatine Products in Runcorn, the former Cheshire Glue Co., which was acquired in 1991 by DGF Stoess. The war had changed the position of Great Britain in the world market completely. In the 1930s, imports had been approx. 2500 tons/annum and exports approx. 250 tons/annum. In the 1960s, imports dropped to approx. 600 tons/annum and exports increased to approx. 2500 tons/annum. The Netherlands/Switzerland The Delft company in the Netherlands changed from glue to gelatine, and production increased slowly to about 1000 tons/annum. In Switzerland, the company Geistlich started to producce a small amount of gelatine after being a traditional glue manufacturer since 1909. The Winterthur plant in Switzerland was liquidated in 1971. 24 1 Introduction Sweden In 1967, the KemaNord Group, a large chemical manufacturer, acquired the Stidsvigs & Ha¨lsingborgs Limfabriker, a company which had been producing about 1000 tons/annum of edible gelatine from hides and bone since 1957. A new plant (Extraco) was built in 1971 with the target of producing 3000 tons/annum, mainly based on pigskin. In 1976 the target was exceeded, but the distance to the raw material sources, and hence the transportation costs for frozen pigskin, created financial problems. Italy In this period, a small plant, Barbero in Sta. Vittoria d’Alba, was founded, but it went bankrupt in 1968 and was acquired by F. Vezza. It then became Italgelatine with about 1000 tons/annum production after some investment. In Torino the company Fermonte produced approx. 700 tons/annum of photographic gelatine. Fermonte was owned by the photographic company Ferrania Spa, which itself was owned by 3M. The Fermonte plant was sold in 1973 to the third Italian gelatine manufacturer during this period, Lapi, with its plant in Empoli, near Pisa, which had a production of approx. 700 tons/annum at that time. Spain In 1960, the owners of Pagans decided to focus completely on gelatine and divested themselves of their other businesses. In 1967, they expanded their degreasing and demineralization capacity and brought up their production to 1200 tons/ annum, but they ran into severe financial problems in paying for this investment. The other manufacturer, Junca, erected a new plant in the outskirts of the town in 1953/54. At the end of the 1960s the production of leaf gelatine was also started for the domestic market only. The first gelatine exports of this company were made in the early 1970s to Egypt and to the USA. Eastern Europe There are some indications that in those years very small technical gelatine production facilities existed in Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Romania. Most of these disappeared in the years following because of inferior technology and their small size. Russia No details about the foundation of the Russian gelatine industry are known. However, it can be assumed that some plants did exist during this period, founded before the war. Total production of about 5000 tons/annum was reported for the end of the 1960s. United States Because of the lack of imports during the war and the growing use in all applications, the gelatine industry expanded rapidly. In 1949, Atlantic Gelatin manufactured approx. 10 000 tons/annum. The fairly unrestricted access to fresh pigskin 1.2 The Development of the Gelatine Industry 25 impelled the industry to make their plants much larger. However, only one new plant was built in this period, the new pigskin gelatine plant of Kind & Knox in Sioux City IA in 1966. In 1937, a total of 13 plants produced approx. 10 000 tons/ annum; in 1953 it was approx. 25 000 tons, but in 1974 only approx. 19 000 tons/ annum were produced by 11 plants because imports had resumed. From 1971 to 1974 production had to be reduced because of an oversupply situation. In 1972 Lipton, a Unilever company, acquired Kind & Knox, with their plants in Sioux City and Camden, from the Knox family. Their main business target was the retail market, in which the ‘‘Knox Sparkling Gelatin’’ packs for households played a dominant role. Therefore they sold the Camden plant in the middle of the 70s to Peter Cooper. In the same period the gelatine plant in Dubuque became Keystone Gelatin and the gelatine plant in Calumet City became the Gelatin Division of Wilson, a large meat packer. In 1978 the Rousselot company bought US Gelatin with its plants in Oak Creek WI and Camden NY from Peter Cooper and continued international expansion. Canada A large Canadian integrated meat products company, Canada Packers, built a gelatine plant in Toronto in the 1950s mainly based on their own pigskin. In 1970 it was expanded to make 1500 tons. For a brief period it also manufactured some hide gelatine. Australia/New Zealand/South Africa The plants in Australia and New Zealand were further modernized and expanded, and in 1970 the first semi-automatic continuous extraction process was constructed in Botany, Sydney. Because of the limited raw material sources in Australia and New Zealand, all kinds of raw materials besides pigskin were used – sheep legs, dried hide splits and pieces, wet hides, hairy material, but no ossein. In 1951, Davis acquired 70% of the shares of the small gelatine company Gelatex in South Africa, which then became Davis Gelatine Industries. In 1971, the remaining 30% were purchased and the plant modernized and expanded. Japan In 1954, Fuji Film decided to curbail their own gelatine production, close their Kawakami gelatine plant, and concentrate on the purchase of gelatine from outside but in close technical cooperation with their Japanese suppliers. In 1955, Nippi doubled their production by means of a large modernization and expansion program. In 1957, Tadera Glue changed its name and Asahi Gelatine was founded to produce high-grade glue. In 1960 it became a cooperative factory of Nippi and entered a technical and sales agreement. In 1971 the factory was rebuilt and expanded and the production of acid gelatine started. 26 1 Introduction In 1960, Nitta Glue and Gelatin changed its name to Nitta Gelatine. In 1968, Yamaguchi Trading and Nitta established a JV company, Hikone Gelatin. Their gelatine was exclusively marketed by Nitta. Because of its dependence on imported raw material, Nitta started, in 1970, to make ossein with a partner in Thailand, and Takarazuka Gelatin did the same in 1973 with a partner in India. Gelatine production of all types in Japan was reported in 1966 to be 3600 tons; in 1974 the confirmed figure was 6,600 tons. But Japan was still dependent on gelatine imports for the photographic industry. So was it not surprising to see an import duty of 20% for edible and pharmaceutical gelatine but only 3.5% for photographic gelatine. Mexico In 1959, Mexican investors, under the leadership of A. Olaza´bal, founded Industrias Coloidales approx. 2700 m above sea level in Toluca, close to Mexico City. This was later modernized with the assistance of PB Gelatines. The production was based on pigskin. Some time later Olaza´bal left the company. Since 1990, the company has been known as Coloidales Duche´ and is controlled by a group of French investors. This is a result of certain banking turbulences. In 1968, A. Olaza´bal founded a further gelatine plant, Panamericana de Grenatina, also in the Toluca area and approx. 8 km from his old plant. The reasons were the weather conditions and the water availability. At the beginning, the plant processed 100% pigskin; however, during the 1970s and 1980s, hide and bone processes were developed for cost reasons. Also in the 1960s, Grenatina Diamante was founded in Leon in the North of Mexico in the predominantly tanning area. The plant was and still is of little importance outside Mexico. The same is true for Grenatina Regia. However, probably the first gelatine plant in Mexico was Progresa, founded in the 1950s in Leon. This small plant still exists. Because of the importance of the table jelly market, Mexico has developed a relatively large gelatine production. Brazil In 1965, Leiner continued their world-wide expansion and founded a gelatine plant in Cotia, a suburb of Sao Paulo, a location which was also close to slaughterhouses and tanneries. At this time, another gelatine plant was built in the South of Brazil in Estancia Velha by Inbragel. This was later taken over by Leiner do Brazil. Colombia In 1930, E. Minski and I. Gilinski founded a tannery in Colombia. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, two gelatine plants were built, one in Baranquilla (Gelatinas de Colombia-Gelco) by Minski and Gilinski and the other in Manizales (Progel) by Nabisco. For the latter plant, Davis provided the production know-how and owned a 30% stake in the company. 1.2 The Development of the Gelatine Industry 27 India In 1948, the company Rallis was founded to make chemicals. Most probably late in the 1960s, their affiliated company PPI (Protein Products of India – at first a large ossein manufacturer) started to become a gelatine manufacturer based on Rousselot technology after Rousselot acquired a 14% share holding in 1969. In 1983, when the use of Indian bone became more and more questionable, Rousselot sold its share, and PPI was renamed Rallis. Since 1961, Leiner has had a small production plant in India, the company Leiner-Knit Gelatine in Jabalpur. The partners previously owned tanneries in that area. Some years later, the large industrial group Shaw Wallace became a partner, and the plant was modernized and expanded and became Shaw Leiner. After several financial irregularities in that operation, all the English employees, including Mr. Leiner, had to leave the company in 1970. Leiner lost his shareholding completely in 1978 and the company became Shaw Wallace Gelatines. Further, Raymond Glues & Chemicals in Baroda was founded in 1964. An ossein plant was built, followed by a gelatine plant. But besides this relatively small production in gelatine itself, the Indian companies became more and more important as suppliers of crushed bone or ossein for the world’s gelatine industry. However, in the 1950s, the import of crushed bone was restricted because, when unloading a vessel in France (Dunkirk), several dock workers were infected with anthrax and died. The same happened a few years later in Hamburg. This created an increased preference for the more sanitized ossein. The accidents also created a public discussion about the source of such bone material (animals that had not been slaughtered but simply died), and as a result it was used more for photographic gelatine – at least until the industry realized that Indian bones are not the best source for high-quality inert photographic gelatine. Korea In 1963, Sammi was established for the purpose of producing and distributing edible and pharmaceutical gelatine. The raw material at that time was most likely hide split, because many tanneries were located in Korea. This privately owned plant still exists today. The most important events in this period were the following: 1. Rousselot and Leiner started to become real international companies with production sites overseas. 2. Large industrial groups entered the gelatine business for different reasons, so several private ownerships disappeared. 3. The importance of safe and secure raw material supplies was recognized because of the growing output of the industry. Local sourcing became more and more difficult. Several companies invested in affiliated businesses domestically and abroad to collect raw materials and also to install the first pre-treatments like degreasing and demineralization of the bone material. 28 1 Introduction 4. Pigskin was used in Europe by many companies as an additional or alternative raw material, mainly for edible gelatine. 5. The demand for photographic gelatine showed a constant growth potential, but the main driving force in the markets in the years after 1960 was the sharply rising demand for pharmaceutical capsule gelatine, including microcapsules. In Europe, fruit gummies became very popular, and with the dairy industry a new market was created. 1.2.8 Period 1973–1993 France In 1973, the name Rousselot-Kuhlmann changed again and the company became Rousselot by merging with its raw-material-collecting company Soporga and the acquired Compagnie des Ge´latines Francaises. In 1977, the owner family of Rousselot had tremendous fears about the intention of the Socialist Party to nationalize important French businesses. As a result, they decided to sell the business. Because of the first oil crisis, the petroleum industry was looking into alternative businesses, and one of the major projects was to make protein from crude oil by bio-fermentation. Thus, there was general interest in proteins at that time. A potential buyer was found quickly – British Petroleum. However, the French government intervened and presented an alternative buyer, ATO-Chemie, a subsidiary company of ELF-Aquitaine and TOTAL. In 1985, the name changed again because of a restructuring of the businesses of ELF and the newly founded state-owned Sanofi company. Rousselot became a part of Mero-Rousselot-Satia (MRS), with a large portfolio of other products including other hydrocolloids. The next name change happened in 1988, and MRS became Sanofi-Bio-Industries (SBI) in the sole ownership of Sanofi. In a restructuring program, Rousselot closed the plants in Attichy (France) in 1981 and Clifford (England) in 1980, because they decided to concentrate all investment in their Camp-Major and Isle-sur-Sorgue plants. In 1975 the total production of Rousselot in France and Belgium was approx. 20 000 tons/annum, but further expansion was undertaken and in 1985 the total production was approx. 25 000 tons. In 1989, the Dubuque plant of Keystone Gelatin was acquired, and in 1990 the Argentinian plant of Stauffer was completely taken over. This expansion program was completed with the acquisition of the Pagans plant in Spain in 1991. During this period, Weishardt expanded further and was reported to produce approx. 3500 tons in 1982. Export businesses were developed, and since 1981 the company has been trying, unsuccessfully, to produce photographic gelatine. Belgium In 1981, the last production of limed bone gelatine was made in the Vilvorde plant of PB Gelatines. All this production was moved to the acquired plant in 1.2 The Development of the Gelatine Industry 29 Nienburg, Germany. The plant became mainly a pigskin gelatine plant apart from some remaining acid bovine bone production. Between 1987 and 1993, substantial investment was made in Vilvorde in the bone-degreasing unit and the gelatine plant, and the capacity now exceeds 9000 tons/annum. Also, the Ghent plant of Rousselot (manufacturing mainly pigskin gelatine) was further modernized and expanded to produce 10 000 tons/annum. Germany In 1973, DGF Stoess acquired more than 25% of the shares of the largest bone collector in Germany, Scheidemandel, to safeguard the raw material supply for future expansion. At the same time, the site of the Pfeffer plant in Memmingen was acquired, which had previously been shut down by the authorities. On this site, the most modern bone degreasing plant in the industry was established, followed, in 1977, by an acidulation plant. After further purchases of Scheidemandel shares, their gelatine plant in Minden was integrated by DGF Stoess in 1981 and completely modernized, and the production portfolio changed from hide to pigskin gelatine. Together with Scheidemandel, a new raw material collection company, Rohage, was founded, because, after several shortages in supply, it had become more and more obvious that a secure raw material supply at reasonable prices was the most important key to the success of gelatine companies. In 1990, DGF Stoess tried to acquire the Gelatinefabrik Calbe in the former East Germany, but, because of previous environmental problems with the soil, the negotiations failed and the plant went into receivership. In 1978, DGF Stoess decided to expand outside of Germany. It acquired a minority shareholding in the Australian Davis group and started a 50/50 joint venture with Davis in the USA by acquiring the old gelatine plant from Wilson in Calumet City and building a brand new pigskin gelatine plant (Dynagel). Soon, further acquisitions followed – in 1983 in Brazil (Sairsa), in 1991 in Great Britain (Gelatine Products) and Sweden (Extraco), and in 1992 again in the United States (Kind & Knox). With a worldwide production of approx. 36 000 tons/annum in 1993, the difference to the Rousselot group had become insignificant. In 1979, the production of hydrolyzed gelatine in a separate plant in Eberbach was started. To expand these activities, a smaller operation for hydrolyzed gelatine was acquired in Finland (Lappro) in 1989, but the growing lack of hide splits in that area during this time forced its closure in 1998. After the Schering group had realized that gelatine production did not fit into their business interests, they sold the plant to PB Gelatines in 1975, and over time the production portfolio moved more and more from hide gelatine to bone gelatine. Great Britain The Leiner production was continuously increased from approx. 6000 tons/ annum in 1973. In 1979 it was in the region of 8000 tons/annum. Leiner had tried to make pigskin gelatine for many years because of the high cost of the imported bone and the growing demand for high grade gelatine of this type. 30 1 Introduction However, because of poor technical investments, lack of know-how and the need to import the pigskin, the company encountered financial difficulties and went into receivership in 1980 despite the fact that the Welsh Development Agency had earlier invested 2 million pounds in subsidies. The whole international Leiner group was split into separate pieces and put up for sale. A management buy-out by five managers followed, Leiner Gelatin was founded, and a further 1 million pounds in subsidies were provided. These, however, disappeared somehow and were subject to a parliamentary investigation. The whole site was reduced, with some bone gelatine production remaining, but the next bankruptcy took place in 1985. At this point, the plant was acquired, and the company became PB Gelatines UK. Croda upgraded their plants in Widnes and Luton and implemented a new process to use chrome shavings from the leather industry to make low-grade gelatine. With more than 5000 tons/annum being produced, Croda became an important manufacturer of mainly photographic and pharmaceutical gelatine. As mentioned before, Rousselot closed their plant in Clifford in 1980 because of lack of size and some environmental problems. Gelatine Products had gone through a costly modernization program in the late 1980s and had established itself successfully on the market for edible hide gelatine in Great Britain. It had previously been in the ownership of a large British food company which had run into financial problems and was forced to sell off several of its companies. DGF Stoess took this opportunity to buy the company and to become, together with the imports of pigskin gelatine from Germany and Sweden, the leading food gelatine supplier in Great Britain. Sweden After the first difficult years, Extraco became a successful manufacturer of high quality pigskin gelatine and expanded its capacity continuously (in 1987 a quantity of 5000 tons/annum was reached, in 1989 7000 tons, and in 2001 12 000 tons), but it always had problems getting enough raw material from within short distances because it did not have its own raw-material-collecting company. After German reunification, it went into a contract manufacturing agreement with DGF Stoess under which they got German pigskin and sold the manufactured gelatine back. This way, a close cooperation started, and when their parent company (Nobel Industries) was forced for financial reasons to sell Extraco together with 15 other businesses, DGF Stoess acquired them in 1991. The combination with the raw material organization of DGF Stoess secured their raw material supply for future expansion. Italy At this time, Italgelatine expanded their plant to approx. 3000 tons/annum capacity and started to use pigskin, as many of the Italian tanneries had been closed by the authorities because of pollution by their waste water. As a result, hide splits became in short supply. 1.2 The Development of the Gelatine Industry 31 Spain In 1975, Pagans was acquired by the Belgian DeSmeet group, one of their equipment suppliers, as they could not pay their bills. DeSmeet decided to start the production of pigskin gelatine and to move the plant out of town. In 1986 the new plant was inaugurated, and in 1991 the business was sold to Rousselot. Also, Junca started to change away from hide splits to pigskin because the breeding of pigs increased constantly in Spain and generated additional raw material for the gelatine industry. Besides this change, Junca also started to make hydrolyzed gelatine in liquid and spray-dried form. Eastern Europe At this time, there were three small plants in Czechoslovakia, of which one, founded in 1982, was acquired in 1995 by Weishardt and became Gelima. There were three plants in Poland and one in Romania. In Poland, several attempts had been made to increase gelatine production by building new plants with state subsidies, but most of the money mysteriously disappeared, and, after a large corruption scandal (in the press at least), one of the persons responsible was sent to prison. Lapi, an Italian manufacturer, invested in the Romanian plant unsuccessfully and the plant was closed. Russia In the 1980s, five plants existed, with a total production of approx. 6000 tons/ annum. However, they never showed up on international markets. The main site was Kazan, which accounted for 50% and was the center for photographic gelatine next door to the largest Russian plant for the manufacturing of photographic films and paper. United States In the United States, the business of US Gelatin was bought by Rousselot with the two production sites in Oak Creek WI and Camden NJ. In 1980, the Camden plant was closed and the production transferred to Oak Creek, which was also closed in 1985. Thus, the name US Gelatine disappeared from the market. Further restructuring took place in the United States. In 1979, Hormel started up a new gelatine plant in Davenport IA and the Austin MN plant was closed. As well as standard gelatine, they also started to make hydrolyzed gelatine. At the same time, Lipton decided to build a new bone gelatine plant, which started up in 1978, and was directly connected to their pigskin plant in Sioux City IA. During the 1980s DGF Stoess had tried a few times to convince Lipton about a joint venture or to sell their business, but without success. However, suddenly, in 1991, Unilever decided to concentrate on their consumer business and to sell Kind & Knox, which made mainly gelatine for ‘‘industrial use’’. After an auction process, which lasted many months, the business was sold to DGF Stoess, not so much because of the highest offer, but because of the best business concept. After this acquisition, DGF Stoess became equal in size to Rousselot, with about an 18% share of the world market. 32 1 Introduction Canada In 1990, Canada Packers sold their gelatine plant in Toronto to Nitta, and it was named Cangel. Australia/New Zealand/South Africa In 1983, the Davis holding company was acquired by the food company Fielder Gillespie and lost its independence. A few years later, the new company was again taken over by Goodman, and in 1987 Goodman Fielder acquired a 60% stake in Leiner do Brazil and the company Leiner Davis was formed. The remaining part of this business was then bought in 1992, including the new Argentinian plant. In 1991, the Australian plant in the Sydney area had to be closed because of environmental problems, and a new plant for hide gelatine was built in Queensland by transferring much of the dismantled equipment. Because of many technical problems, it took until 1995 for the first production batch to emerge from this plant. Japan In 1974, Nihon-Hikaku became Nippi, and established an affiliated company in India to produce ossein. Nitta did the same in 1975 by establishing Kerala Chemicals and Proteins (KCP). In 1978, the glue plant of Koei Chemicals was changed to gelatine production, with technical and business cooperation with Nitta, which also sells their gelatine. In 1983, Asahi Gelatine also started to make alkaline gelatine and, in 1986, collagen powder gelatine. In 1987, a second production line was added. In 1988, Takarazuka Gelatin changed its name to Konica Gelatin. Nitta acquired a gelatine plant in Canada (Cangel) from Canada Packers. In 1980, the total gelatine production in Japan surpassed 10 000 tons for the first time, reaching 15 000 tons in 1990. Mexico After being mainly a pigskin gelatine producer, Duche´ changed their production in 1992 for cost reasons to acid hide processing, and finally, in 2002, they started to manufacture alkaline-treated hide gelatine, which is their main product today. Brazil After the bankruptcy of Leiner in Great Britain, the Brazilian operation was taken over by the management and some investors under the leadership of H. Cobelo. In 1983, the plant of Inbragel in Estancia Velha in the South of Brazil was acquired, and in 1985 the new Maringa plant was established. The attempt to produce bone gelatine in Maceio failed. The plant started up in 1986 and was shut down in 1989. The Cotia gelatine plant was also closed in 1989, but the Maringa plant expanded. In 1983, DGF Stoess expanded to South America and acquired a 50% shareholding in the Sairsa hide gelatine plant in Mococa, north west of Sao Paulo, an attempt at a shareholding in Leiner do Brasil some years before having failed.